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Файл:Psychology and pedagogy. Study aid
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ed in the educational institution. In this case, self-education, enriching the teaching,
finds support in it, testing independently acquired knowledge, systematizing it.
At the same time, training makes it possible to enrich self-education with collective search and remove some of the difficulties of independent knowledge. Developing in the educational system, self-education receives new incentives for its approval. At the same time, self-education skills are developed, first of all, in the process of carrying out various types of independent work of students provided for by
the curriculum (selecting the necessary literature, taking notes, summarizing what
they read, drawing up abstracts, preparing reports, etc.). In this case, students use reference literature and dictionaries, and in the process, for example, of excursion, laboratory and experimental work, they acquire the skills necessary for self-education
to observe, compare, and generalize life phenomena.
Self-education skills acquired at school are deepened and improved in the process of educational work in higher-level educational institutions. An important role in
this, in addition to independent work with educational and scientific literature, is
played by classes in seminars, scientific student societies and design bureaus, participation in individual and group research, etc.
Self-education in recent years of development of the domestic educational system is considered as an integral part of lifelong education, acting as a link between
basic education (general and vocational) and periodic advanced training or retraining
of specialists
The problem of lifelong education
Lifelong education is a philosophical and pedagogical concept, according to
which education is considered as a process that covers a person’s entire life. At the
same time, this is also an aspect of educational practice, representing it as a person’s
ongoing, purposeful mastery of sociocultural experience using all links of the existing
educational system of the state and one of the most important principles of the educational policy of the Russian Federation.
In the theory and practice of lifelong education, adult education beyond basic
education is especially emphasized — the acquisition and improvement of professional qualifications, retraining in the process of changing professions, education in
the course of adaptation to changing social conditions, leisure education, etc.
In world pedagogy, the concept of lifelong education is expressed by a number
of terms, among which are “continuing education”, “lifelong education”, “lifelong
learning”, “permanent education”, etc. Closely related to this concept is “renewing
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education”, meaning receiving education “according to parts” throughout life, a de-
parture from the practice of long-term education in an educational institution, separated from a person’s work activity, alternating education with other types of activity,
mainly with work.
In the psychological and pedagogical aspect, characteristic of lifelong education is the tendency to rely on self-education, the formation and development of self-
learning skills, the development of value orientations in the spirit of “lifelong learning”, the widespread use of modern active forms and methods of learning, the ap-
proach to learning as a process of increasing volume of life and professional experience.
An important feature of the domestic practice of lifelong education in recent
years has become the independent choice of educational goals and means of achieving them. In this regard, the idea of lifelong education is associated with the transition
of educational theory and practice from the teaching paradigm, within which a person
acts as an “object of educational influences,” to a paradigm that assumes a humanistic
type of relationship between participants in the educational process (teachers and students), and personal self-development of students.
In personal terms, continuous education is realized not only through the functional inclusion of a person in the educational process or organizational measures that
ensure “continuity of links,” but also through the formation of an internal personal
position that ensures the continuity of education in the inner world of the individual.
In this case, it is a way of developing semantic, life guidelines, including professional
and educational ones, one of the vital lines of self-realization of the individual, which
is carried out through the means of education.
Continuing education also acts as a path and means of creative personal
growth, constructive overcoming situations of social and professional life crisis. That
is why, for psychological and pedagogical practice, the most important area of its
problems is the process of a person’s self-actualization of their values and creative
potential in the educational process.
The development of the issue of lifelong education in the Russian Federation is
distinguished by its urgency associated with changes in the life of society in the context of the transition to market relations, a sociocultural situation in which professional flexibility and mobility are not reduced only to the field of human production
activity, but become both a social and personal problem and directly affect the educational sphere of society. Of particular importance are socio-practical and scientificapplied approaches to lifelong education, which are aimed at its humanization, reorientation from the impersonal needs of the state or departments to the educational
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needs of a person, the inclusion of the educational process in the context of a person’s
social and industrial life, their personal growth. In addition, the development of its
theoretical and applied problems is due to the departure from strict centralization of
state regulation of education, the social need to switch to a broad and flexible system
of educational services.
The considered characteristics of education reflect its conceptual positions implemented in the Russian Federation. They correspond to the evolution of the domestic educational system. However, other approaches are often visible in the education
of foreign countries. The main role in them is played by universities and secondary
vocational educational institutions, courses and educational centers, and national cultural centers. In them, people with incomplete secondary or secondary education can
improve the level of their general educational or general cultural training in the desired direction, acquire a new specialty or improve their professional qualifications.
These institutions also provide assistance in preparing for secondary school examinations or entrance examinations to secondary and higher vocational educational institutions.
Many students studying abroad study in their free time (part-time education) or
by correspondence. There are short-term boarding courses (mainly for rural residents)
with a break from work (full-time education). In most cases, they are administered by
municipal authorities or trade unions, religious, various public and private organizations. In a number of countries, there are also classes for adults in secondary and vocational schools and universities, where students (in their free time or by correspondence) can receive a document on secondary or higher education. With the help of television, so-called leisure education has acquired significant proportions.
In many countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America, literacy courses and
schools play a major role in education. They often combine literacy training with
practical training to obtain a specialty. In a number of countries, as illiteracy and low
literacy are eliminated, a network of public primary schools for adults, as well as
technical schools, is being created. In addition, some secondary educational institutions and colleges have classes for adults, where, by studying in your free from work
time, you can get an incomplete secondary or secondary education. UNESCO provides significant assistance to these countries.
The outlined characteristics of education from the point of view of domestic
didactics allow us to move on to a detailed consideration of the Russian educational
system.
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6.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RUSSIAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
The educational system of the Russian Federation is formed on the basis of the
considered conceptual positions. It represents a set of methodological, theoretical and
organizational elements of the state that make it possible to solve educational problems of various levels and directions. Its fundamental element is the goals towards
which the existing educational system is aimed.
The main goal of education
The educational process is largely goal-oriented. It presupposes a certain direction of pedagogical efforts of teachers and students, awareness of their final results,
and also includes the content side and means of achieving these goals.
It should be noted that the problem of educational goals can be traced back to
antiquity, but always remains complex and contradictory. To date, in domestic didac-
tics, three main approaches have been identified.
1. Determining the goals of education in the interests of transferring the experi-
ence accumulated by mankind from generation to generation.
2. For the purpose of education, provision is made for the formation of a per-
sonality useful to society of a specific historical formation.
3. Inclusion of elements of the two previous positions in the list of goals, which
allows us to see the main goal of education in the formation of a comprehensively
developed personality, useful for society based on the implementation of the rich socio-cultural experience of mankind.
In the pedagogical and psychological literature of recent years, one also often
encounters a description of the purpose of education as the transfer of only social experience from the older generation to the younger. However, such definition suffers
from generalization and looks rather like a framework condition for building an education system.
The true goals of education must be set in more specific terms. They are always of a specific historical nature and are formed taking into account many social
and cultural realities. The difficulty here is that these realities are sometimes very
contradictory. Modern civilized society, scientific and technological progress require
a person to have a wider range of knowledge and professional skills. Hence, education becomes aimed at developing a person’s cognitive potential. Its purpose shifts
from the simple transfer of experience to the formation of personality from the point
of view of its usefulness to society. The emphasis is on specialty. However, with this
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approach to determining the goals of education, the interests of the individual, their
hidden inclinations and abilities are practically not taken into account.
In this regard, in recent decades in the Russian Federation a person-oriented
approach to identifying the essence of the goals of education has become increasingly
established. Its main meaning is the formation of a comprehensively (harmoniously)
developed personality, prepared for the reproduction and development of the material
and spiritual culture of society. With this approach to the problem under consideration, the main goal of any social institution is considered as human development on
the basis of personality-forming knowledge.
At the same time, it should be noted that the principles of state ideology have
been implemented in the education system of our country for a long time. This made
it possible to form a unified ideological platform for all educational institutions, defining the goals of education. However, in the context of the current depoliticization
of educational institutions, this becomes simply impossible. In addition, in world
pedagogical theory and practice there has long been an opinion that the educational
process cannot be hostage to the opportunistic aspirations of the party leading at a
given historical period of time. Education should be based on permanent, enduring
ideas and values. One of them should be the principle of humanism, developed and
tested by centuries of practice.
With this approach in domestic education, the emphasis is on the holistic, universal formation of personality, the harmonious development of its intellectual, spiritual and moral components. That is why, from the standpoint of humanism, the leading goal of education is the creation of conditions for the formation and development
of a person as a full-fledged subject of socially significant activity, responsible for the
results of their work.
Having a specific value guideline in the form of educational goals, didactics
further explores and develops the actual process of achieving it and identifies significant connections between the elements operating within its framework. The educational process itself in general represents a coordinated interaction of many organizational, theoretical, methodological, social, material and other elements. However,
they are largely determined by the content and the education system itself.
Contents and education system
For the successful implementation of professional training, as an important
means of formation and development of the individual, it is necessary to understand
not only what to teach, but also, first of all, how this task should be solved. The an-
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swer to this question determines the content of education. What should be understood
by the “content of education” in the Russian Federation?
When answering this question, it is important to keep in mind the need to form
a system of scientific knowledge and related practical skills that students need to
master in the interests of developing their mental and creative abilities. But the factual material of each academic subject organically includes ideological and moral ideas,
as well as conclusions that have a great formative influence on the individual. Naturally, these ideas and conclusions are at the same time an important part of the content of education. Therefore, in general terms, the content of education can be understood as that system of scientific knowledge, practical skills and abilities, as well as
ideological and moral positions that the student needs to master.
Determining the content of education is not an easy task. The history of pedagogy shows that when solving it, many mistakes were made that negatively affected
the quality of education. That is why in pedagogical science such great importance is
attached to the development of those initial theoretical ideas that should determine
the content of modern education. The main ones are objective (the needs of society,
the level of development of science and technology, etc.) and subjective (policy and
ideology of the state, methodological positions of scientists, etc.) factors. In addition,
education should ensure that students master social experience, the basis of which is
scientific knowledge, skills and methods of creative activity, their ideological and
moral orientation. This, in turn, necessitates the need to ensure a full-fledged scientific education for all categories of citizens, its constant improvement in connection
with socio-economic transformations and the needs of society to improve the quality
of training of people at various educational levels (primary, secondary or higher).
It should be noted that the specific content of education is quite dynamic. What
shaped it yesterday may look different today, and tomorrow it may change again.
That is why in didactics a system of scientific requirements for determining the content of education has been formulated and operates. Let's look at the main ones.
1. The content of education at all levels should be aimed at achieving the main
goal of society — the formation of a modern, harmoniously developed personality.
From this requirement it follows that the content of educational work must ensure the
mental development of students, their technical and labor (professional) training,
physical, moral and aesthetic education.
2. The content of education should be built on a strictly scientific basis and explain to students the essence of social life, contribute to the formation of their civil
and patriotic position. This requirement has a number of aspects.
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Firstly, the content of education should include only theoretical principles that
are firmly established in science.
Secondly, the content of the academic subject must correspond to the current
state of science and include its latest achievements.
Thirdly, the content of education should be characterized by clear conclusions
on the issues being studied.
3. The content of education in each academic subject must correspond to the
logic and system inherent in a particular science. Developing such a system is quite a
difficult task. However, it is precisely this that allows students to successfully move
along the path of mastering the necessary educational knowledge and developing the
appropriate skills and abilities.
4. The content of education should be based on the relationship between individual academic disciplines (academic subjects). This requirement is due to two main
factors. The first of these is that studying most subjects is impossible without prior
preparation in others. The second is due to the fact that a specific academic subject
reflects only one aspect of holistic human activity. Consequently, the effectiveness of
its activities depends entirely on the completeness and quality of knowledge in all its
components.
It should be noted that the specific content of education, formed by the re-
quirements considered, is specified at each of its stages, which determine the struc-
ture of the state’s educational system. According to the Russian Federation Law “On
Education in the Russian Federation,” the state educational system distinguishes three
types of education, the level structure of which is shown in Table. 1.
Table 1
Level structure of the Russian Federation educational system
1. Preschool education
2. General education
(schools, gymnasiums, lyceums)
Initial general
(grades 1–4)
Basic general
(grades 5–9)
Secondary general
(grades 10–11)
3. Professional education
Vocational education
(technical schools, colleges,
technical lyceums)
Higher education
(institutes, academies, universities)
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1. Preschool education has the goal of implementing the educational process
by ensuring continuity between preschool and primary general education, creating
optimal conditions for protecting and promoting the health, physical and mental development of children in families and preschool educational institutions.
2. General education includes three levels corresponding to the levels of educational programs: primary general, basic general and secondary general education.
Its main goal is to equip students with a system of knowledge, skills and abilities, as
well as to develop in them personality traits that will subsequently allow them to successfully master various types of professional activities in accordance with the needs
of the individual, family, society, and state.
3. Professional education includes two levels: vocational and higher. In addition, it can be either primary or additional. The purpose of vocational education is to
prepare qualified workers, mid-level specialists, bachelors, senior specialists or masters of the appropriate profile and level for activities in a specific productive, educational or scientific field (humanitarian, industrial, medical, military, etc.).
The Law of the Russian Federation “On Education in the Russian Federation”,
in addition to the types of education considered, also provides for advanced training
aimed at accelerating the acquisition and improvement of knowledge, skills, abilities
and competencies by students to perform certain professional activities, as well as
professional retraining of personnel. However, it must be taken into account that advanced training and retraining are not accompanied by an increase in the educational
level of the student. At the same time, it is an important element of the state system of
continuous education.
The forms of education within which citizens of the Russian Federation can
receive a certain level of education include full-time, part-time17 and correspondence
education, as well as family education, self-study and external education. A combination of different forms is allowed, but within specific general education programs
there is a single state educational standard. In addition, for a number of professions
(for example, medical), part-time forms of education, as well as external studies, are
not provided.
In recent years, distance learning has become widespread in the Russian educational system, which is a technology for purposeful and methodically organized
guidance of educational and cognitive activities of students (regardless of the level of
education they receive) living at a distance from the educational center. It is carried
out using means (usually electronic) and methods of pedagogical communication between the teacher and the student with a minimum number of classes with their direct
17
The part-time form of education provides training in the evening on weekdays or training on weekends.
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contact. In terms of methods of organizing the educational process, distance learning
is close to correspondence, and in terms of the intensity of the educational process —
to full-time education.
To implement educational programs at various levels, an educational institution
must undergo special procedures — licensing and accreditation.
Licensing and accreditation
Licensing of an educational institution is carried out once upon its opening. At
the same time, accreditation is carried out once every five years at the request of an
educational institution by the state certification service or on its instructions by government bodies, education authorities and local governments with the involvement of
leading educational institutions and the public. Their main goal is to check the compliance of an educational institution with the standards in force in the Russian Federation and to issue documents for the right to conduct educational activities.
Licensing of educational institutions is a procedure that includes an examination, decision-making, registration and issuance of a license to a vocational education
institution for the right to conduct educational activities in fixed areas (specialties),
levels of vocational education, as well as additional adult education. Its goals are to
ensure and protect the rights of citizens of the Russian Federation to receive vocational education, to create legal guarantees for the free functioning and development
of vocational education institutions of various organizational and legal forms.
The decision to issue a license is made by the relevant educational management
body that carries out licensing, and is formalized by its administrative document
based on the conclusion of the expert commission. For each direction (specialty), level of training or additional education program, the validity period of the license is indicated separately. In case of reorganization of the institution (change of organizational and legal form, status), its license becomes invalid.
The subject and content of the licensing examination is to determine the compliance of the conditions for the educational process offered by the vocational education institution with state and local requirements. These include compliance with
building codes and regulations, sanitary and hygienic standards, health protection of
students and workers, equipment of educational premises, security of the educational
process (material, technical and financial), educational qualifications of teaching staff
and staffing levels.
Accreditation of educational institutions of the Russian Federation involves
the implementation of a procedure for recognizing the type of educational institution
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(secondary or higher vocational) and its type (university, academy, institute, college,
technical school, etc.). Its goals are to monitor the effectiveness of the educational
process and protect the rights of citizens to receive education.
The accreditation survey is carried out by the state education management
body in the form of an examination. If the decision is positive, the educational institution is issued a certificate of state accreditation.
Positive completion of licensing and accreditation procedures gives an educational institution the right to carry out independent educational activities of a certain
level. At the same time, controlling state and public bodies have the right to exercise
additional control over it, which is one of the elements of managing the educational
system of the Russian Federation.
Educational system management
Management of the educational system is a special type of social management
that supports the focus and organization of educational, innovative and supporting
processes in the education system. Subject to the general laws of social management,
it has specific features determined by the ways of setting and achieving socially significant goals in the specific conditions of the organized educational process.
The origin of the theory of managing the state's educational system is associated with the spread of mass education. In this regard, in the second half of the 19th
century, within the framework of traditional pedagogy, a special section was identified — “school studies”. At the beginning of the 20th century, the internal organization of various educational institutions, their interaction with the state and society began to be considered from the perspective of the theory of administrative management, first systematized by A. Fayol (France, 1916). The basic principles of management included: division of labor, power and responsibility, discipline, unity of
management and leadership, subordination of private interests to general ones, remuneration, centralization, hierarchy, order, justice, constancy of the staff, initiative,
unity of personnel.
In Russia, the theory of educational management initially developed as school
science. After the October Revolution of 1917, a centralized state system of educational institutions was created, but in the specialized literature, management issues
were considered mainly in relation to the field of general education. The first documents of the Soviet government about the school were based on democratic ideas and
provided for the decentralization of school management, private initiative in school
affairs, student’s self-government, and the wide participation of local societies and
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