Добавил:
ivanov666
Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Предмет:
Файл:Psychology and pedagogy. Study aid
.pdf
151
various techniques. Among the most famous is the sociometric method of the
American social psychologist and psychiatrist Jacob Moreno (1892–1974). It makes
it possible to identify the presence of stable mutual preferences of group members, on
the basis of which one can draw conclusions about which of them specific individuals
are oriented towards, how people with different status and individual psychological
characteristics coexist in it, what relationships exist between them. It also makes it
possible to identify a clear system of interpersonal and emotional relationships in a
small group, since it makes it possible to determine the number of preferences given
to a particular person and reflect their qualitative characteristics, manifested in
interpersonal interaction.
Thus, psychological phenomena in any social community have a significant
impact on the quality of all types of group activities. In order to create a positive
socio-psychological climate in the department, the manager needs to know the
essence and patterns of formation and manifestation of basic psychological
phenomena in the social community of his subordinates. Having mastered the
available methods for assessing socio-psychological phenomena in small groups, a
manager (specialist) will be able to quickly and sufficiently deeply diagnose (study)
them, exert an effective managerial influence on them, improving the quality of
solving the problems facing the structural unit.
A graduate of a highly qualified professional educational institution needs to
remember this and fully implement in their own professional activities not only their
official powers, but also the psychological “toolkit” developed by domestic scientists
for studying intra-group interpersonal relationships in a subordinate structural unit.
This will allow one to significantly improve the level of their management activities.
Questions and tasks for self-testing of knowledge
1. What is the organizational and psychological structure of society? What is
the essence of the basic components of social psychology?
2. Outline the essence, structure and features of the psychology of various
classes of modern society.
3. What are the features of the formation and manifestation of national
psychology?
152
4. Expand the relationship between the concepts of “group” and “team”, as
well as the concept and structure of small group psychology.
5. Outline the essence of the generalized characteristics of the psychology of
small groups and the system of methods for their diagnosis.
Аdditional literature
1. Бороздина, Г.В. Психология и педагогика : учебник для бакалавров /
Г.В. Бороздина. — 2-е изд., испр. и доп. — Москва : Юрайт, 2016. — 477 с.
2. Психология и педагогика: в 2 ч. Ч 1: Психология : учебник для академического бакалавриата / под общей редакцией В.А. Сластенина, В.П. Каширина. — Москва : Юрайт, 2016. — 230 с.
153
CHAPTER 5
PSYCHOLOGY OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Communication as a socio-psychological phenomenon. Concept and content
of communication. Purpose, means and types of communication. Communicative,
perceptual and interactive functions of communication.
Social-role communication. The concept of “social role”. Interpersonal,
intragroup and individual roles. Features of communication in the operating
conditions of an organization (firm). Principles of communication with employees.
Model and technology of communication with personnel. Persuasive technology.
Mastering the practice of persuasive influence.
The concept of “communication” belongs to the basic categories of Russian
psychological science. In recent years, it has become on a par with such categories as
consciousness, personality, group (collective), etc. This formulation of the question,
elevating communication to the rank of the most important scientific and practical
problems, comes from an analysis of the relationship between communication,
professional, educational and other types activities of any person. In addition,
practical experience shows that the level of professionalism of the head (manager) of
an organization (enterprise, firm, etc.) is largely determined not so much by their
professional preparedness as by their ability to communicate with employees, that is,
personal qualities and the ability to lead people. This is due to the fact that more than
two-thirds of a manager’s working time is spent communicating with employees.
Consequently, the effectiveness of leadership largely depends on the ability of the
manager and specialist to interact productively with other people, both vertically and
horizontally. But in order to master the art of communication, a leader needs
knowledge of the patterns and mechanisms of this process, the structure, forms and
principles of communication, as well as an understanding of its content as a sociopsychological phenomenon.
5.1. COMMUNICATION AS A SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL PHENOMENON
Communication is a complex, multifaceted socio-psychological process of
establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the need for joint
professional activities and including the exchange of information, the development of
a unified interaction strategy, perception and understanding of another person.
154
Consequently, the main task of psychology in this case is to establish the patterns of
human interaction with the social system through a set of socio-psychological
connections into which one is closely integrated and thanks to which they acquires
specific personal qualities, become an independent subject of activity and a unique
individuality.
Concept and content of communication
At its core, communication is one of the most important forms of interaction
between people, generated by the needs of their joint professional and other activities,
involving the exchange or transmission (broadcast) of professional, social or
personally significant information. Its main goal is why a person has this type of
activity, namely: training and education, coordination of actions in joint activities,
establishing relationships, etc. Consequently, the goal of human communication is to
satisfy not only biological needs, like in animals, but also many others: social,
cultural, cognitive, creative, needs for intellectual growth, moral and professional
development, etc.
Achieving communication goals contributes to the satisfaction of human
biological and social needs. The first of them is necessary for the maintenance,
preservation and development of the body, satisfying basic organic needs. It ensures
the self-preservation of the body, the maintenance and development of its vital
functions. The second is intended for the development of interpersonal contacts, the
establishment of interpersonal relationships, the formation and development of
personality. As a result, communication serves the social needs of people and is a
factor contributing to the development of forms of social life of groups, collectives,
society and the state as a whole. The focus of the tasks solved in it is revealed in its
content.
• The content of communication lies in the information transmitted during hu-
man contacts. This may be information about the internal motivational state, about
actual needs transferred to the partner with the expectation of their participation in
their satisfaction. It is also knowledge about the world, acquired experience, skills
and abilities. That is why communication is multi-subject and diverse in its internal
content, which can only be understood by analyzing the content side (subject) of
communication.
• The content side of communication can be presented as a set of material, cog-
nitive, conditional, motivational and activity components. In material communication, people exchange objects and products of activity, which serve as a means of sat-
155
isfying their needs and a condition for their individual development. During cognitive
communication, information is exchanged that allows people to more fully study each
other's personal characteristics. This is an important factor in intellectual development and the formation of a scientific worldview. Conditional communication is understood as the mutual influence of people, designed to bring each other into a certain
physical or mental state. Such communication creates a state of psychological readiness for learning, formulates guidelines for optimizing other types of communication,
and thereby contributes to a person’s intellectual and personal development. With
motivational communication, motives, attitudes, and readiness to act in a certain direction are transferred to each other, which leads to the formation of attitudes to action and actualization of needs. Acting as a source of additional energy, motivational
communication allows you to acquire new interests, motives and goals of activity.
This increases a person’s psychoenergetic potential and stimulates its development.
Activity communication is associated with various types of cognitive (for example,
educational), professional, social, etc. activities, serves as a way of transmitting information, broadens one’s horizons, and develops human abilities. During it, an interpersonal exchange of actions, operations, skills and abilities is carried out, which
enriches and improves human activity.
• Each of the stated components is aimed at achieving a specific goal of com-
munication using certain means and within the framework of one type or another.
Purpose, functions, means and types of communication
The leading goal of communication is that for which a person has this type of
activity. In animals, the purpose of communication may be to encourage another living being to take certain actions or to warn that it is necessary to refrain from some
action. The mother, for example, warns the baby about danger with her voice or
movement; Some animals in a herd can warn others that they have perceived favorable or threatening vital signals.
A person has a much larger number of communication goals. In addition to
those listed, they include the transfer and receipt of knowledge about the world, training and education, coordination of reasonable actions of people in their joint activities, establishment and clarification of personal and business relationships, and much
more. If in animals the goals of communication usually do not go beyond satisfying
the biological needs that are relevant to them at a given time, then in humans they are
a means of satisfying more diverse needs: social, cultural, cognitive, creative, aesthetic, the needs of intellectual growth, moral development and a number of others. All of
156
them form the content of the corresponding general functions of communication,
among which the following stand out:
- contact, the purpose of which is to establish interaction as a state of mutual
readiness to receive and transmit messages and maintain relationships in the form of
constant mutual orientation;
- information exchange of messages, that is, the reception and transmission of
any information in response to a request, as well as the exchange of opinions, plans,
decisions, etc.;
- incentive stimulation of the communication partner’s activity, directing him
to perform certain actions;
- coordination — mutual orientation and coordination of actions when organizing joint activities;
- understanding — not only adequate perception of the meaning of the message, but also adequate perception by partners of each other (their intentions, attitudes, experiences, states, etc.);
- emotive stimulation in a partner of the necessary emotional experiences (“ex-
change of emotions”), as well as changing one’s own experiences and states with its
help;
- establishing relationships — awareness and acceleration of one’s place in the
system of role, status, business, interpersonal and other connections of the community in which the individual will act;
- exerting influence — changing the state, behavior, personal and semantic
formations of the partner, including his intentions, attitudes, opinions, decisions, ideas, needs, actions, activities, etc.
Communication means can be defined as methods of encoding, transmitting,
processing and decoding information transmitted in the process of communication.
Information can be transmitted and received in various ways: bodily contacts (touching the body with hands, etc.); at a distance, using the senses (observing the activities
of another person, perceiving sound signals). At the same time, man invented and
improved methods such as language and other sign systems, writing in its various
forms (texts, diagrams, drawings), technical means of transmitting and receiving information (radio, television, mechanical, electronic, laser and other forms records).
Consequently, the means of communication is understood as the way in which a person realizes the content and functions of communication and achieves its goal. They
depend on the level of holistic development of a person and his culture.
Depending on the means, communication can be direct and indirect, direct and
indirect, which determines its typology. With the help of natural human organs (arm,
157
head, torso, vocal cords, etc.) direct communication is carried out. A person needs it
in order to learn and be brought up using the simple and effective means and methods
of learning available from birth: conditioned reflex, vicarious and verbal. In mediated
communication, special means are used. These can be both natural objects (a stick, a
thrown stone, a footprint on the ground, etc.) and cultural ones (sign systems, print,
radio, television, etc.). Such communication helps to master both one’s own means
and, on their basis, improve the ability for self-education, self-education of a person,
as well as for conscious management of the communication process. Direct commu-
nication is carried out through personal contacts, people’s direct perception of each
other, when they see, hear, emotionally feel the interlocutor, and react to his certain
actions. Indirect communication involves the participation of intermediaries, who can
be other people. For example, when transmitting orders from the head of a company
through the manager of its structural unit.
Depending on the goals and means used, communication can be divided into
several types. Here it is advisable to highlight business, personal and targeted communication. Business communication is present in joint activities and is aimed at improving its quality and productivity. If business communication is focused on what
people are doing, then personal communication is associated with the psychological
problems of a person’s inner world, namely: knowing oneself and others like oneself,
relating to other people, to what is happening around, resolving internal conflict, etc.
Targeted communication serves as a means of satisfying a specific need, including
the need to communicate with people.
Having understood the essence of communication, its goals, means and types,
one should consider its psychological functions (sometimes they are called sides, aspects of communication), which will make it possible to more clearly structure this
process. Among them, the most significant are communicative, interactive and perceptual functions.
Communicative function of communication
The communicative function of communication involves the fact that people,
in the course of joint activities, exchange various ideas, ideas, feelings, moods, etc.
This is the information of human communication, during which it is not just transmitted, but also formed, clarified, and developed. It has only its own specificity. First,
communication is not just the exchange or movement of information. Here we are
faced with the relationship of two individuals, each of whom acts as an active subject.
Schematically, communication (exchange of information) can be represented as an
158
intersubjective process (S = S), as a subject-subject relationship of active exchange of
information, during which the subject of communication is jointly comprehended.
Secondly, the exchange of information involves the mutual influence of sub-
jects and involves a psychological influence on the partner’s behavior in order to
change it.
Thirdly, communicative influence is possible only when subjects have a single
or similar system of encoding and decoding information, that is, they speak the same
language, when the signs and the meanings assigned to them are known to everyone.
Fourthly, communication is characterized by communication barriers that are
social or psychological in nature. On the one hand, this is a different worldview,
worldview, worldview, which gives rise to different interpretations of the same concepts. On the other hand, barriers can be purely psychological in nature due to individual personality characteristics (shyness, secrecy, mistrust, incompatibility, etc.).
To realize the possibilities of the communicative function, appropriate sign
systems are used, designated as verbal and non-verbal communication.
Verbal communication is represented by oral and written speech. This means
that the language in which the communication process is carried out (for example,
Russian, English, German, etc.) is used as a sign system. Its properties include speech
sound phenomena (range, tonality, intonation, speech rate, timbre, rhythm, modulation of voice pitch), studied by paralinguistics, as well as non-speech expressive qualities of the voice (moderate laughter, giggles, crying, whispering, sighs, etc.); disjunctive sounds (e.g. coughing); zero sounds (pauses), as well as sound nasalizations
(sounds “hmm-hmm”, “uh-uh”, etc.), studied by extralinguistics. At the same time, it
is necessary to take into account that paralinguistic and extralinguistic sign systems
are only “additives” to verbal communication. They increase semantically significant
information, but not through additional speech inclusions, but using “near-speech”
techniques.
The space and time of organization of the communicative process also act as a
sign system and carry a semantic load as components of communicative situations.
Thus, placing communication partners facing each other promotes contact and symbolizes attention to the speaker, while shouting in the back can have a certain negative meaning. The advantage of certain spatial forms of organizing communication
(both for two partners in the communicative process and in mass audiences) has been
experimentally proven.
In the same way, some standards developed in various subcultures regarding
the temporal characteristics of communication act as a kind of addition to semantically significant information. Arriving on time for the start of business negotiations
159
symbolizes politeness towards the interlocutor. On the contrary, being late is interpreted as a sign of disrespect. At the same time, in some special areas (primarily in
diplomacy), various possible “tolerances” for delays with their corresponding mean-
ings have been developed in detail.
Nonverbal communication performs the functions of supplementing or replacing speech, as well as representing the emotional states of communication partners.
Psychologists have found that in the content of communication, words make up only
7%, while sounds and intonations make up 38%, and non-verbal interaction makes up
55%. Consequently, the nonverbal component in the content of communication is
more than 90%. Its tools include kinesics, proxemics and visual communication.
Kinesics reflects the external manifestation of human feelings and emotions,
which is based on the general motor skills of various parts of the body. These are facial expressions, gestures and pantomimes.
Facial expressions are considered as the movement of facial muscles, showing
the internal emotional state of a person, which can reflect surprise, fear, anger, interest, disgust, contempt, sadness, happiness, etc. The main cognitive load is carried by
the eyes, eyebrows and lips. It should be taken into account that a person’s emotions
are reflected most often on the left side of the face. This is due to the fact that the
right hemisphere of the cerebral cortex is responsible for the experience of sensations,
which is reflected asymmetrically on the face, that is, on the left side. This is an analog information channel. The left hemisphere is responsible for the formation of logical information — this is a kind of sign channel, asymmetrically reflecting it on the
right side of the face. A manager with sufficient psychological and pedagogical
knowledge can perceive and analyze facial codes based on such parts of the face as
the mouth, lips, the shape and shine of the eyes, the position of the eyebrows, horizontal or vertical folds on the forehead, and the mobility of the face as a whole or its
individual parts. emotional states of employees.
Gestures complement communication with a range of movements of individual
parts of the human body. They can be reduced to the following groups:
- illustrative gestures — message gestures, pointers, figuratively depicting the
meaning of the transmitted message;
- regulatory gestures express a person’s attitude towards something or someone;
- gestures-emblems are original substitutes for words or phrases in communica-
tion;
- adapter gestures are considered as specific movements of a person’s hands,
reflecting their habits;
160
- affector gestures express certain human emotions, such as confidence, doubt,
suspicion, self-control, expectation, tension, readiness, etc.
At the same time, gestures can be open or closed. The first indicate psychological readiness for productive communication. This manifests itself in uncrossed and
unlocked positions of the arms and legs. The latter talk about closedness, readiness to
protect themselves from the situation. Outwardly, they appear in the form of crossed
arms and legs.
Pantomime reflects the motor skills of the whole body: posture, posture, gait,
bending. These dynamic positions characterize a variety of psychological states, including readiness and unreadiness, desirability and undesirability of communication.
Thus, the guilty employee most often walks with an uncertain gait, slouches in order
to reduce his height, emphasize the relationship of subordination and try to avoid
punishment. Based on the postures, postures and positions of those communicating,
one can guess how effective the communication is and determine the role of each of
them.
Proxemics deals with the norms of spatial and temporal organization of communication. Its essence is that time and space carry a semantic load in communication.
The founder of proxemics, E. Hall, while studying the norms of intimacy between partners, identified four zones of interpersonal space: intimate (0–45 cm), personal (45–120 cm), social (120–400 cm) and public (400–750 cm). Each of them is
characterized by special communication situations. The intimate zone is characterized
by trust, a quiet voice, and tactile contact. It is intended for loved ones. Personal
zone — for friends, colleagues and involves visual and auditory (hearing) contact.
Social zone — for communicating with a group, for example, when holding an official meeting with subordinates.
Different attitudes of people towards each other can also be expressed through
what place (with freedom of choice) they occupy at the table. For example, at the rectangular desk of the manager (A), employee (B) can take 5 positions, shown in Fig. 1.
B 1
B 2
А
B 3
B 5
B 4
Fig. 1. The location of the interlocutors depending
on the attitude towards communication
Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]