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A — B1 and B5 — corner location is typical for people engaged in a casual
conversation or business interaction between co-authors solving a common problem
(task). This position of partnership and equality is good for communication and developing common solutions. A — B3 — competitive-defensive position, where the
table is a barrier between the interlocutors. This position can also be considered as a
relationship of subordination. A — B2 and B4 — the independent position of people
who do not want to interact with each other at the table.
A square table promotes the creation of relationships of rivalry and defiant behavior of people of equal status. It is most often used to conduct a short business conversation, emphasizing subordination. At such a table, cooperative relationships are
established by the leader most of all with those who are nearby. Moreover, there will
be more mutual understanding with those on the right than with those on the left, and
least of all — on the contrary. This table is for official relationships.
A round (informal) table is used for confidential communication and “convenience” of discussion. It is believed that those who are located to the right of the leader
are closer to him and understand him more than anyone else. Those on the left are also close people. The rest are distanced. If there are two or more groups for discussion
at a round table, then, as a rule, members of his team are located to the right of the
leader.
The success or failure of a manager in communicating with employees is determined not so much by the means of proxemics, but by its content, flow and direction, which are set by higher meaningful levels of human activity, namely, value systems, positions and goals of communication.
In visual communication, a specific sign system is used — eye contact. Its
characteristics are the frequency of exchange of glances, their direction and duration,
dynamics and statics, etc. Eye contact complements verbal communication, namely,
it communicates the readiness to continue or stop it, contributes to the disclosure of
the internal state or, on the contrary, its concealment.
The partner’s gaze can be business (does not fall below the other person’s eyes,
concentrated in the forehead area), social (directed at the symbolic triangle on the
partner’s face, located at eye level and in the mouth area), intimate (passes through
the eye line and descends to other parts of the body), a sideways glance is used to
convey interest or hostility.
The stated provisions allow us to conclude that the full implementation of the
communicative function of communication increases its effectiveness. However, its
interactive function is also of no less importance in communication.
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Interactive communication function
The interactive function of communication is associated with the development
of strategies, tactics and techniques for the interaction of people, the organization of
their joint activities to achieve certain goals. Such communication presupposes the
achievement of mutual understanding, the application of joint efforts for the further
organization of activities in the final results of which the communicating parties are
interested. The specificity of interaction is that it records not only the exchange of information, but also the organization of joint actions, and, consequently, develops their
forms and norms.
The diversity of the interaction structure has given rise to different approaches
to its description. Social action theory analyzes the components of human interaction,
communication and change. Other scientists view interaction as a process that goes
through certain stages — spatial, psychological and social contacts, interaction and,
finally, social relationships.
An original approach to describing interaction is presented in E. Burn’s trans-
actional analysis, a direction that proposes to regulate the positions of the participants
in the interaction (for example, a parent, an adult or a child) and take into account the
nature of the situation and the style of interaction.
Possible types of interaction are usually combined into three groups: positive
(cooperation, agreement, adaptation, association), competitive (competition, rivalry)
and negative (conflict, opposition, dissociation). In the first case, interaction contributes to the organization of joint activities (cooperation), in the second, competitive
interaction arises between employees or structural divisions of the company (competition), in the third, it creates significant obstacles in joint activities (conflict). What is
the essence of each of the presented types of interaction?
Cooperation is the streamlining and coordination of the efforts of partners. A.
N. Leontyev in this case identified two features of joint activity: 1) division of a single process of activity between the participants; 2) changes in the activities of each of
them. It is important that the result of each person’s activity is connected to the final
result of joint activity through the development of interpersonal relationships.
As for another type of interaction — competition, here the analysis is concentrated in a more vivid form of communication, namely on the competitive interaction of employees with the aim of achieving higher performance in professional activities and the official hierarchy. The motives in this case may be the
desire for moral or material encouragement, the formation of the image of a high-
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ly professional employee, the desire to be appointed to a more attractive position, etc.
Unlike competition, the phenomenon of conflict lies in the fact that it can
be based on two characteristics: psychological antagonism and conflicting actions. Destructive conflicts lead to mismatched interaction. They are characterized by an increase in the number of participants and their conflict actions, an increase in negative attitudes and severity of statements, an increase in tension and
prejudice, an increase in the number of false perceptions of the personality traits
and qualities of another person.
In a conflict situation involving criticism of the interlocutor’s actions, the
main thing is not to lose internal composure, immediately stop criticizing, try to
objectively understand the reasons that caused dissatisfaction, and mitigate the
tense situation in any way. A good way to prevent conflicts is the ability to listen
to your interlocutor. His disposition and trust largely depend on the extent to
which the interlocutor is given the opportunity to speak. Meanwhile, according to
psychological research, only 10% of people know how to listen to another in case
of disagreement.
Perceptual function of communication
The perceptual function of communication explains the perception and understanding of another person and oneself, and the establishment of mutual understanding and interaction on this basis. All mental processes are included and
work in the act of communication. With their help, individual characteristics of
the psyche and behavior of people are perceived and assessed. Social perception
involves not only understanding and accepting the goals, motives, and attitudes
of a communication partner, but also considers how they are perceived. In the
process of interpersonal perception, people, according to S.L. Rubinstein, seem to
“read” the thoughts of another person. This is, on the one hand. On the other
hand, the more fully another person reveals himself, the more complete his selfimage becomes. In the course of getting to know another person, several processes are carried out simultaneously: one’s emotional assessment, and an attempt to
understand the structure of their actions, and the strategy of one’s own behavior
based on this.
The mechanisms of social perception include identification, empathy and
reflection. Identification means identification, likening oneself to others. Identifying yourself with an employee means, firstly, uniting yourself with them on the
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basis of an established emotional connection and including them in your own
world of accepted norms and values; secondly, this is a representation, a manager’s vision of their employees as a continuation of themself (projection), endowing them with manager’s own characteristics, traits, feelings, desires; thirdly, putting oneself in the place of another person, which manifests itself in the form of
immersion, transferring oneself into the field, space, circumstances of the employee and leads to the assimilation of one’s personal meanings.
Rational understanding of the partner’s situation is enhanced by emotional
experience, i.e. empathy (feeling). Empathy allows you to take into account the
behavior of another person. Based on one’s emotional assessment, an appropriate
attitude is formed: sympathy is a positive image of the other, antipathy is a negative one. Empathy can manifest itself in such forms as empathy (experiencing the
same emotional states as another person) and sympathy (experiencing your own
emotional states about the feelings of another person). An important characteristic of empathy is also isolation within the framework of direct emotional experience and poor development of the reflexive side, which is the next mechanism of
perception.
Reflection in psychology is understood as the acting individual’s awareness
of how they are perceived by their communication partner. In other words, understanding the interlocutor by thinking for them. Mutual perception in the process
of reflection presupposes the following positions: the subject themself, as they
are in activity, and the subject, as they appear to the other. Both subjects of communication are in these positions. Consequently, reflection is a peculiar process
of double mirroring of each other by subjects.
The considered mechanisms of mutual understanding allow us to move on
to the analysis of the very process of people getting to know each other from the
point of view of studying the content of interpersonal perception (analysis of its
mechanisms and accompanying effects)
.
As already noted, the content of interpersonal perception is the interaction of at
least two partners, which has two sides: evaluating each other and changing some
characteristics due to the very fact of their presence. When evaluating a partner, people often build a whole system of interpretations of his behavior and the reasons that
cause it. In conditions of a shortage of information, a search begins and a peculiar attribution to it of the causes of this or that behavior, denoted in psychology by the
concept of causal attribution.
The attribution depends on the action. If it is typical, the possibilities of interpretation are narrowed. If you are extraordinary, the possibilities are widest. This is,
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on the one hand. On the other hand, the effect of causal attribution depends on the
compliance of the action with social and cultural norms. When they are violated, the
range of explanations expands. Finally, the nature of attributions depends on whether
the subject of perception is himself a participant in these events. In this case, it becomes clear why the employee who failed to complete the task blames the circumstances, and the manager who assigned it and did not personally participate blames
the employee. For the same reason, responsibility for certain events is attributed to
other employees. In this regard, it is important to remember that attributive processes
occupy a significant place in interpersonal perception.
In perception, an important role is given to the formed orientation towards the
goals and objectives of communication. Often the formation of the first impression of
a future employee depends on the characteristics given to them. And then, depending
on the attitude formed under the influence of previous information, some will find
negative traits, others will find positive ones.
In perception, perception errors are also possible, which are based on the ef-
fects of “halo”, “primacy”, “novelty” and “stereotype of perception”. The “halo” effect is a kind of “stigma” on a person’s image, making it difficult to see their actual
behavior. Therefore, during communication through attribution, an attitude towards a
previously existing image is formed and perception is distorted. The “primacy” effect
occurs when perceiving a stranger and depends on the order and significance of the
presentation of information for assessing his personality. The previously communicated information, although diametrically opposed to the latter, still plays a decisive
role.
With a new perception of the employee, the effect of “novelty” also appears
and the latest, new information, contrasted with the existing one, turns out to be more
significant. An erroneous understanding of another person can also be explained by
the “perception stereotype” effect. It arises due to the manager’s insufficient experi-
ence and exists in the form of a stable image. The result is a simplistic approach and
prejudice towards people. There are stereotypes of perception of professions, ethnic,
religious and other stereotypes.
In the process of perception, not just perception of each other occurs, but a
whole range of feelings is born, emotional relationships arise, the formation mechanisms of which are explained by the “attraction” phenomenon. Its inclusion in the
process of interpersonal perception is a necessary condition for communication between heads of organizations and firms with their employees. In this regard, in order
to form an attractive image of a manager and a positive emotional attitude towards
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them, a number of provisions should be observed. The following can serve as specific
methods for forming positive attraction.
The “proper name” technique recommends more often addressing another per-
son by name or first name and patronymic, because these sounds are the most pleasant melody for a person. The name given to them accompanies a person throughout
their life and is inseparable from their personality. Such treatment serves as an indicator of attention and often evokes unconscious (subconscious) positive emotions.
The next technique is associated with a person’s face, which, as is known, is
the “mirror of the soul.” Facial reactions are rarely controllable and therefore reflect
the actual attitude towards the interlocutor. A friendly expression on the face and a
smile signal friendship, camaraderie and good intentions.
The “golden words” technique implies that the leader should not skimp on
compliments, praise and encouragement to subordinates, which every person needs.
The essence of the “patient listener” technique comes down to being able to lis-
ten to an employee with interest, not only giving him the opportunity to speak, but
also facilitating this in every possible way.
Another technique will help influence a person if, when communicating, the
manager uses knowledge about his employees, their marital status, hobbies and other
individual characteristics and personality characteristics.
Thus, effective managerial communication involves the exchange of information, the organization of interaction and mutual understanding. At the same time,
the head of an organization, firm or their structural divisions, who is an active subject
of management, needs not only to develop personal organizational and communication skills, but also to master the technology and specific techniques of management
communication. However, solving this problem can be difficult without knowledge
of the essence and features of social-role communication.
5.2. SOCIAL-ROLE COMMUNICATION
One of the key concepts in the psychology of human communication is the idea
of personality. The capabilities of a particular individual are limited by the actions of
those around them, with whom they enter into certain relationships, and their predecessors, whose experience, habits and prejudices have been adopted by other people.
In addition, a person lives and acts in a certain structure, the features of which are determined by the culture (social experience) of a certain specific historical community.
Consequently, an important analytical unit that allows us to model a person’s life ac-
tivity is their social role.
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Social role
To a first approximation, a social role could be defined as a function of an element of a social system (an individual or a group of people), determined by its objective position within it. The individuals, who make up society, come and go, but their
specific functions continue to be carried out by successive generations. For example,
every year the composition of a particular university is updated, but it always has a
rector, professors, associate professors, assistants and support staff.
Some researchers of social and psychological problems believe that each person, like an actor, simply receives a role from the outside and obediently performs it.
However, in the complex, rapidly changing conditions of real life, strict regulation
and literal execution would have a detrimental effect on the results of their personal
self-realization. Unlike a robot, which functions according to a program laid down
from the outside, a person always remains a self-governing being — not so much an
object of control, but a subject of activity. They may not suspect anything about the
function assigned to them and act based on their own ideas about the situation, about
the best way for them to solve problems that arise. What an individual does in a difficult situation depends on many factors. There is no doubt, however, that they will not
ignore the experience of other people in solving similar problems. Past generations
have selected and passed on to the present models of behavior in typical social situations, which are learned through targeted instruction or as a result of accidental learning (children copy other children and adults). Both of these forms can appear together. People live in society and each of them performs many social functions. For example, official (boss, subordinate, ordinary employee, specialist, student), everyday
(tenant, buyer, neighbor), family (husband, wife, son or daughter), etc. Performing a
certain social function means doing what is “supposed” in this place under these circumstances. “It is supposed” — this is, on the one hand, prescribed by laws and regulations, and on the other hand, by morals and customs that apply where people live.
Since what is “supposed” is taught to all members of large and small social
groups, every person must fulfill certain “social roles.” Of course, the understanding
of what a person is and is not obligated to do in a given social role may differ from
the understanding of others. This circumstance causes constant discussions in society,
and sometimes leads to conflicts between people (negative roles, criminal ones).
The roles are impersonal. They do not depend on the personality of the performer, but only on the “life part” one performs. This entails certain inconveniences — whether a person wants it or not, they must act in accordance with the rights
and responsibilities attached to the position they occupy. For example, if someone
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becomes a husband, he will have to give up many of his youthful pastimes. A person
becomes who others take them for. In this regard, a well-known specialist in the field
of interpersonal interaction, I. Kon, notes in one of his works that “to seem is the
same as “to be,” but not for oneself, but for others. A coward who can “appear” to be
brave long enough may eventually become one.”
At the same time, the role cannot be reduced to external representation. Respect in communication with a leader (manager) can be dictated by selfish goals.
That is why the fulfillment of a social role always contains feelings, thoughts, and
aspirations. It is important that all of them are defined before a specific performer
appears. An individual spends most of their life in cooperation with other people,
and each of their actions, strictly speaking, is only an element of a larger system of
joint activity. From here come two important features of each person — an obligatory sense of personal responsibility to the partner of interaction and a detailed
analysis of their behavior, actions and actions.
So, a
social role
is a system of thoughts and feelings, intentions and actions
developed by society and internalized by the individual that are appropriate in a
given situation for a person occupying a certain social position. Meanwhile, in addition to the social one, each person also plays other roles. The most significant of
them are interpersonal, intragroup and individual roles.
Interpersonal, intragroup and individual roles
Every person has a circle of people that he encounters every day. In relation
to one person one acts as a Friend, in relation to another — in the role of an Enemy. Someone is their Ward, someone is their Patron, someone is their Enemy or
Tormentor, someone is their Partner, and someone is their Object of Adoration.
The distribution of interpersonal roles between a person and someone else is always associated with feelings for each other and with the “backstory” of the inter-
action. But since the roles have already been distributed, then everyone has expectations for the other person. Therefore, an interpersonal role is the behavior that is
expected from one person by another according to the established relationship between them. If one neglects the role expectations of the partner, then the relationship changes and interpersonal roles are distributed in a new way.
When entering into communication with anyone, each person simultaneously
plays both a social and interpersonal role. Moreover, the social role is in the foreground. However, they often diverge. This discrepancy between social and inter-
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personal roles makes people “reluctant actors.” It’s not for nothing that sociologists
love to refer to Shakespeare, who, as you know, wrote:
All the world's a stage,
And all the men and women merely Players;
They have their exits and their entrances,
And one man in his time plays many parts.
This understanding of people’s actions is due to the fact that in addition to
social and interpersonal roles, people also play “intra-group” ones. For example,
the role of a Leader (formal or informal), the role of an Ally or a Rival, the role of
a Conflict Person or a Peacemaker, etc.
An
intragroup role
is the behavior that is expected of an employee by
members of the small group to which one belongs in accordance with the image
they acquired in a structural unit of a company or organization. However, each person simultaneously and sequentially belongs to many other small groups. And in
each of them person’s intragroup role may be different. A leader, for example, may
be considered a leader in one environment and a follower in another.
Intragroup roles played by people from childhood decisively shape their
character. According to the “theory of the mirror “I”” by Charles Cooley, a small
group forms a corresponding idea about each of its participants, which significantly
affects the content of the “I-image” presented to them. But each person at a specific stage of their life is simultaneously included in the functional system of many
groups. As a result, they form a whole set of “I-images”. To behave in accordance
with any of them means to manifest oneself, or to play an individual role. This is
the behavior that a person expects from themself (according to their self-esteem)
and which, under certain circumstances, reproduces past experience of adaptation
to the social environment around him (large or small group).
Many “I-images” are related to a single point — self-awareness. From childhood, a person develops a special psychological authority, the task of which is to
integrate different “I-images” and string them onto one personal axis. This phe-
nomenon is designated by the concept of “psychological self-portrait”. For this
purpose, psychology uses two mechanisms that explain the integrative activity of
people — “repression” and “compensation”. The essence of the first is that every-
thing that contradicts each other or causes injury to the individual’s pride is removed from the “I-images”. The effect of compensation is that the contradictory
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and traumatic features of “I-images” become consistent and flattering thanks to
human imagination.
Performing interpersonal, intragroup and individual roles, each person continues their personal development, strives for personal self-realization in various
forms of communication with other people. This is especially true in the conditions
of modern production, financial and economic activities by organizations and firms.
That is why the leader (manager) themself are obliged to be able to communicate
effectively and correctly with employees in all situations of their activities. One of
the conditions for the effectiveness of solving this problem is knowledge and consideration of the peculiarities of communication in the interests of the organization
and management of its activities.
Features of communication
in the operating conditions of the organization
As is known, communication in teams of government, commercial and other
organizations is based on the requirements of the relevant corporate rules governing
the relationships of subordination and coordination of relationships between various
categories of employees. At the same time, it is necessary to emphasize that the
principles contained in them do not contradict the generally accepted norms and
rules of communication in society, but complement and specify them in accordance
with the requirements of the principle of sole leadership and responsibility of the
leader.
Considering that relationships, based on the characteristics of professional activity, are classified according to the spheres of their manifestation (corporate, public, social, etc.), it is legitimate to divide communication in these spheres into two
types: corporate (official, business) and non-corporate (unofficial). At the same
time, the manager should take into account that each of these types has its own
characteristic features and differences in implementation technology (a set of content, forms, means, methods and techniques).
The nature of
corporate communication
is determined by the principle of
strict subordination and is distinguished by categoricalness, brevity, and the implementation of professional categories, concepts and terms. Its main content is the
problems of organizing official interaction, ensuring clarity in the implementation
of projects, fulfilling contractual obligations, etc. In such communication, the main
condition for the success of a manager is to create the impression of a competent
specialist who knows their job as a professional.
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