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and developing in the environment, between educators and students, between the
teaching staff and the family, between traditions and innovations, etc.
A crisis stage may occur in the functioning of the educational system, which is
clearly not realized by either teachers or students, but manifests itself either in dissatisfaction with teaching, educational and other activities, or in difficulties in carrying
out traditional work. The aging of the educational system, on the contrary, is expressed in the excessive orderliness of the life of the team, the loss of the sense of the
new, and the weakening of the initiative of those being educated. However, the stages
of crisis and aging can be avoided if constructive impulses for renewal arise within
the system.
The formation and functioning of educational systems is one of the priority areas for the development of modern pedagogical theory and practice. In this regard,
the focus of researchers is on the problems of goal setting in the field of education,
identifying the relationship between education and socialization in the conditions of
modern Russian society, pedagogical understanding of the processes of selfknowledge, self-awareness, self-realization of the individual in educational and other
institutions with established educational systems, etc.
The theoretical analysis of the essence, formation and functioning of the educational system allows us to highlight the problem of the priority of educational interaction in it.
Educational interaction
Interaction is a philosophical category that reflects the universal essential connection of all living things. In this regard, in pedagogical science, educational interaction acts both as one of the key concepts and as a scientific principle. Its first pedagogical understanding was reflected in the works of famous domestic scientists
V.I. Zagvyazinsky, L.A. Levshin, Kh.I. Liimets and others, who proposed to understand it as the process occurring between the teacher and the child during educational
work and aimed at personal development of a person.
There is no doubt that the presented concept as a whole reflects the essence of
the pedagogical phenomenon under consideration, but is distinguished by the obvious
narrowness of its scope. Thus, it lacks a number of features that would make it possible to expand its understanding to the conditions of modern educational institutions:
the nature of the interaction (subject-object or subject-subject) is not disclosed; only
“personal development” is stated as its goal, and not “the formation and development
of personality”, only the child is considered among its objects. Elimination of identi-
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fied inaccuracies in a number of scientific and educational publications in recent
years allows us to now consider educational interaction as a purposeful process of
subject-subject relations between the teacher and the student, aimed at the formation
and consistent development (improvement) of personal properties and qualities necessary for effective educational, professional and other types of activities of those being educated.
As the analysis of modern educational systems shows, in educational interaction it is possible to distinguish internal (pedagogical relations) and external (pedagogical communication) structures. At the same time, pedagogical relationships are
understood as personally significant emotional and cognitive reflections of each other
by people, which determines their internal state. Communication is the behavior in
which this state is actualized. In other words, communication is behavior in the process of which pedagogical interaction develops, manifests and is formed, realized
through the actions of people.
It should also be noted that educational interaction in modern pedagogical literature is considered in three main areas: individual (between the teacher and the student), socio-psychological (intra-collective) and integral (uniting various educational
actions in a particular society). However, in any case, it becomes educational only
when the teacher purposefully acts as a mentor, a person who conveys his life and
professional experience, helping the student in his personal self-improvement. Consequently, the basis of educational interaction is a kind of cooperation, which, from
the point of view of humanistic pedagogy, is a prerequisite for education focused on
the personal sphere of a person.
At the same time, educational interaction is also considered as a dynamically
developing process that contributes to the formation of the student’s personality and
improves the teacher’s personality with the indispensable leading role of an authorita-
tive educator. The educational interaction of these parties is present in all types of activities: knowledge, play, work, communication. Its influence penetrates into the
“core” of the personal relationships of the participants; it awakens in the pupils the
readiness to be, in the words of V.A. Sukhomlinsky, “educated.” At the same time,
this is a complex process consisting of many components, the largest of which is socio-pedagogical interaction.
In pedagogical interaction — in the conditions of various types of people’s life
activities at specific stages of their age development — the patterns of the educational
process are revealed at the individual and other levels. It is conditioned and mediated
by educational activities, the goals of training and education.
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The basis of pedagogical interaction is cooperation, which is the beginning of
people’s social life. Interdependent joint activities of people are social in essence. In
traditional social relations, interaction and cooperation between adults and children
takes place in the natural conditions of socially useful work, that is, children participate directly in it. In modern society, relations between educators and students are
built largely in the intellectual sphere and are overstrained emotionally. Children perceive the demands of adults indirectly and not always as necessary. Therefore, such
interaction requires a special organization.
In domestic pedagogy, educational interaction is considered in three aspects: as
an individual process (between teacher and student), socio-psychological (in a team)
and as an integral process (uniting various educational influences in a particular society). At the same time, it becomes pedagogical when an adult (parent, teacher) acts as
a mentor. In this regard, for an adult (mentor), participation in pedagogical interaction
is associated with certain moral difficulties because in relationships with children
there is always a temptation to take advantage of one’s age, educational or profes-
sional (teacher, teacher, supervisor) advantage, to reduce communication to authoritarian influence.
The teaching profession is also sometimes perceived as authoritarian. This is
due to the fact that it initially contains care, guardianship, mentoring, and the desire
to pass on one’s knowledge and life experience. It also has a very unclear line beyond
which moralizing, mentoring, and violence against the individual begins. As a result,
for example, children experience a response — the child tries to become independent
from such a teacher, showing open or hidden resistance.
Pedagogical practice shows that experienced teachers always have a special
pedagogical flair and tact, and foresee possible complications in educational interaction. In addition, they improve and develop it as spiritual communication becomes
more complex and social and intellectual needs increase due to the increasing age of
its participants. This created the need to implement an appropriate age-appropriate
approach to education.
Age-based approach in education
The age-based approach to education involves taking into account and using
the patterns of formation and development of a particular person (physiological, mental, psychological, social, etc.), as well as the socio-psychological characteristics of
groups of students, determined by their age composition. In pedagogical practice, it
specifies the content of the principle of natural conformity of education.
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The development and life of a person at each age stage have independent significance from subjective and pedagogical points of view. However, some experts
consider the age stages before the onset of physiological and especially personal maturity only as preparation for the next age period. This leads to an unjustified interpretation of the content of education only as preparing a person for life (socialization), to
an objective attitude towards a person, ignoring the intrinsic value of the individual at
every moment of his existence, and subjectively — to a deliberate distortion of the
time perspective, the emergence of social irresponsibility and personal infantilism.
Age-related characteristics form a complex of physical, cognitive, intellectual,
motivational and emotional properties of a person, which are inherent in most people
of the same age. The characteristics of a particular age group are determined by historical, social, cultural changes that are characteristic of a group of people experiencing the same events in one period of time. In different regions and ethnic groups,
there are also age specificities in upbringing, determined by the characteristics of socialization and age subculture. This requires creativity and flexibility in work from
the educational activities of teachers and other specialists solving educational problems in the systems of educational, industrial, research and other institutions. At the
same time, its effectiveness will largely depend on knowledge and consideration of
the following age characteristics of those being educated:
- uneven development of individual physiological, mental, psychological and
social processes;
- changes in cognitive, motor, emotional and other spheres, as well as in the
content, forms and methods of interaction with people;
- dynamics of relationships in a family, social group, team;
- emergence of new needs and interests and ways of their implementation;
- processes of self-knowledge, self-determination, self-actualization and self-
affirmation;
- specific manifestations of crisis phenomena in human development, etc.
Pedagogical practice shows that solving the last of these problems is particularly difficult. Age-related crises (Greek krisis — turning point, outcome) in pedagogical literature are considered as a conventional name for people’s transitions from one
age stage to another. In developmental psychology, the unevenness, for example, of
child development and the associated special, complex moments of personality formation are empirically noted. At the same time, many researchers (for example,
Z. Freud, A. Gesell, etc.) considered this situation as a “developmental disease”, a
negative result of the collision of a developing personality with the surrounding social reality.
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L.S. Vygotsky, exploring the problem of age-related crises, developed an original concept in which he considered them as a dialectical process of personal improvement. Stages of gradual changes in it alternate with certain crises in the personal
sphere of a person. For example, mental development is carried out through a change
of so-called stable and critical ages. Within the framework of a stable age, new mental formations mature, which come into conflict with the existing system of personal
values of a person of a particular age, which gives rise to an age crisis24.
At various stages of age-related crises, a radical change occurs in the entire
“social situation of development” of a person — the emergence of a new type of relationship with others, the replacement of one type of leading activity by another, etc.
At the same time, the negative manifestations of a particular age crisis are not inevitable. A flexible change in the direction and nature of educational interaction, taking
into account ongoing changes can significantly soften its course.
Pedagogy takes into account not only the achieved level of development of a
person of a certain age, but also the possibilities of influencing this process (including
based on the concept of the zone of proximal development). Of particular integrating
importance is the proposition that at each age stage a person faces a number of tasks,
the solution of which determines personal development. The age-based approach is
designed to create conditions for their effective solution. In this regard, the pedagogical literature identifies three groups of educational tasks for each age: naturalcultural, socio-cultural and socio-psychological.
Natural-cultural tasks presuppose the achievement of a certain level of biological maturation, physical and sexual development, which have some regional-cultural
objective, subjective and normative differences. The age-related approach develops
optimal conditions for nutrition, child care, a system of physical and sensory-motor
development, measures for correcting developmental deviations, ways to stimulate
awareness of the value of health and a healthy lifestyle; forms a positive attitude towards the human body, realistic canons of femininity and masculinity, and an adequate human perception of human sexuality (taking into account ethnocultural traditions).
Socio-cultural tasks (cognitive, moral, value-semantic), on the one hand, are
presented to the individual by various educational institutions, on the other hand, they
exist in the form of certain norms and values in social practice. The age-related approach to education in this case determines the knowledge, abilities, skills, values and
24
L.S. Vygotsky described the following age-related crises: the crisis of the newborn — separates the embryonic period of development from infancy; 1st year crisis — separates infancy from early childhood; crisis of 3 years —
transition to preschool age; the 7-year-old crisis acts as a connecting link between preschool and school age; the crisis at
age 13 coincides with the transition to adolescence.
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norms necessary to solve these problems, actually fulfilling the social order of forming a citizen, family man, worker, etc.
Socio-psychological tasks relate to the problem of developing a person’s selfawareness, self-determination in various spheres of state, public and family life. Help
for an individual in solving these problems can be provided through the educational
development of reflection and self-regulation, as well as the creation of conditions for
adequate self-knowledge, personally significant and socially acceptable selfrealization and self-affirmation. In this case, it is necessary to teach a person to set
goals that are adequate to their age-related capabilities and personal resources, to
make adjustments to them in connection with changes in objective circumstances,
methods of cooperation, problem solving, preventing and overcoming conflicts.
An educational task, unresolved at a certain age, can manifest itself after a long
period and cause undesirable changes in the direction of development of a person’s
personal sphere. This will significantly affect the final result of education — personal
self-determination, self-awareness and self-esteem of the individual.
Self-determination, self-awareness and self-esteem of the individual
Self-determination is the central mechanism for the development of personal
maturity, consisting in a person’s conscious choice of their place in the system of interpersonal, public and social relations. The emergence of the need for selfdetermination indicates that an individual has reached a fairly high level of development, which is characterized by the desire to take their own, but fairly independent
position in the structure of informational, ideological, professional, emotional and
other connections with other people.
The process of the formation of a person as a social, purposefully and consciously acting being is characterized by a combination of the desire for unity, social
recognition, inclusion in a community that is socially significant for him (integration)
and for isolation, separation from the community as a valuable individual (individualization). At the same time, it is necessary to take into account that, for example, in the
early stages of a child’s development, the formation of life skills, speech, and mental
operations is carried out in close interaction with the bearers of experience — adults.
Its assimilation initially occurs through imitation, later through joint, cooperative actions. Only gradually does person acquire the ability to act independently. This is
precisely the main prerequisite for the formation of self-awareness. The child becomes able to accept some influences and reject others not just on the basis of ele-
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mentary motives and moods, but also on the basis of conscious assessments, ideals,
and beliefs formed in the process of purposeful educational interaction.
Self-determination can also be considered as a process of a person’s mastery of
various interpersonal and social roles. He successfully masters some of them, but performing others turns out to be quite difficult for him. And in this case, the educational
interaction between the teacher and the student is of decisive importance.
Special observations show that the child demonstrates the ability to take independent actions and decisions, to defend their own opinion already in the third year of
life. However, at this time their attempts to assert their position are predominantly of
an active emotional nature. Genuine self-determination is realized only in older adolescence and juvenile, when genuine self-affirmation becomes possible, which is an
important component of self-determination. This is due to the fact that the preferred
position must not only be chosen, but also defended, that is, one must confirm one’s
compliance with it through one’s own behavior. This requires a certain maturity of
the motivational sphere of the individual, which is also formed throughout childhood
under the decisive influence of appropriate educational interaction.
In the development of a mature personality, professional self-determination occupies a special place. For a young man, it can pose a serious problem due to insufficient orientation in the field of socially useful professional activity, as well as distortion of previously formed value systems. The latter often results in the choice of future professional activity for shallowly thought-out, purely mercantile reasons. In this
regard, the personal self-awareness formed in the process of targeted educational interaction, the conscious social position of a person, which represents the basis of professional self-determination and forms motivated life goals and guidelines, is very
important.
Self-awareness of a person is a person’s assessment of themself as a subject of
cognitive and professional activity, their moral character and interests, values, ideals
and motives of behavior. It is characteristic not only of the individual, but also of society, class, social group, nation, when they rise to an understanding of their position
in the system of social relations, common interests and ideals. It is in self-awareness
that a person distinguishes themself from the entire surrounding world, determines
their place in the cycle of natural and social events. In addition, it is closely related to
reflection, where it reaches the level of theoretical thinking. And since the measure
and starting point of a person’s relationship to themself are, to other people, then selfawareness in its very essence is of a social nature.
One of the elements of self-awareness is personal self-esteem — a person’s
emotionally rich assessment of themself as an individual, their own abilities, moral
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qualities and actions. It acts as an important regulator of external behavior and internal thoughts and determines a person’s relationship with others, demands on themself, and attitude towards successes and failures. Thus, self-esteem influences the effectiveness of a person’s activities and the development of their personal sphere.
Self-esteem of an individual is formed, firstly, under the influence of the value
judgments of other people. A person tends to evaluate themself the way they think
they are evaluated by others. Disdain for this kind of “external” assessment is rarely
sincere — a person always takes it into account one way or another. Secondly, self-
esteem is formed as a result of comparing the image of a person’s subjective “I” (how
he sees himself) with the image of the ideal “I” (how a person wants to see themself).
A high degree of coincidence between these formations corresponds to a harmonious
mental make-up of the individual.
In the formation of self-esteem at the early stages of a person’s ontogenesis, the
assessments of others play a large role, since they are not yet capable of an objective
analysis of their own activities. Positive assessments from adults are an important
condition for maintaining a child’s emotional well-being. In the future, as experience
accumulates, evaluation of the results of one’s own activities begins to become in-
creasingly important in behavior. The constantly developing stable self-esteem is to a
certain extent freed from the assessments of others and becomes an independent regulator of the behavior of a teenager and an adult.
Sometimes there is a discrepancy between self-esteem and assessments from
others. If they are higher than self-esteem, then the discrepancy between them can
become a factor stimulating personality development, when a person strives to reach
the level of assessment of others. If self-esteem exceeds the assessments of others,
then such a discrepancy can lead to acute intrapersonal conflict.
Self-esteem is closely related to the level of aspirations and goals that a person
sets for himself. Adequate self-esteem allows one to correctly correlate their strengths
with tasks of varying difficulty and with the demands of others. Inadequate (overestimated or underestimated) self-esteem deforms the inner world of a person, distorts
their motivational and emotional-volitional spheres and thereby prevents harmonious
development. As a result, personal self-esteem has a significant impact on the direction and content of a person’s self-education.
Self-education as a direction of personal improvement
It should be noted that self-education in modern domestic humanistically oriented pedagogy is assessed as one of the most promising directions for the develop-
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ment (improvement) of the educational system of educational and other institutions,
determined by the specifics of the current stage of the evolution of Russian society. It
is considered as a conscious, purposeful activity of a person to improve his positive
and overcome negative personal properties and qualities.
Pedagogical studies note that elements of self-education are present in children
already at preschool age. However, during this period the child cannot yet comprehend their personal qualities, but is already able to understand that their behavior can
cause both positive and negative reactions from the adults around them.
The need for self-education begins to manifest itself more actively in adolescence due to the actualization of the need for personal self-determination, selfawareness and self-esteem. However, due to the lack of sufficient social experience
and psychological readiness, adolescents are not always able to correctly understand
the motives of their own actions and carry out self-education without the help of
adults. They need tactful pedagogical guidance.
In adolescence, when a person’s personal qualities are largely formed, self-
education becomes more conscious. In addition, in the process of developing professional self-determination, boys and girls clearly express the need for self-education of
the intellectual, moral and physical qualities of the individual in accordance with the
ideals and values that are characteristic of a given society, immediate environment,
and social group.
It is believed that the holistic content of self-education is formed as a result of
the previous education of the individual as a whole. By the time a person reaches personal maturity, the properties and qualities that meet one’s requirements are formed.
It is on their basis that self-education can be built most productively and include several interconnected cycles (stages).
The first cycle of self-education begins with making a decision about the need
for personal self-improvement. As pedagogical practice shows, without this important
element it is impossible to carry out targeted self-education. Then follows the study
(clarification) of the possibilities of self-education and an assessment of the prospects
for their implementation in working on oneself.
A very important element of the first cycle is the choice or formation of an ideal or model to strive for in self-education. Experience shows that on the basis of an
already formed vision of the possibilities of self-education, one’s own worldview and
under the influence of the educational environment, a person themself chooses an
ideal or example for themself. Sometimes they create some abstract image (model)
that they would like to imitate or what they would like to become. The ideal can be
quite clearly represented in the face of a specific person, or present in their consciousness in the form of certain manifestations (appearance, communication, competence, etc.).
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In the second cycle, a person, in accordance with the chosen ideal (example) or
accumulated knowledge about the possibilities of self-education, strives to know
himself. In the process of self-knowledge, the level of development of a particular
quality or personality trait is identified and self-assessed. The degree and accuracy of
their diagnosis depends on the person being brought up, their desire to really know
themself, their strengths and weaknesses, or to satisfy their private interest. Within
the framework of this cycle, the formulation (clarification) of a person’s value orien-
tations also occurs.
The content of the third cycle is more practical than the previous ones. One of
its critical elements is the choice of ways, methods and means of self-education. It
should be noted that modern pedagogy presents the student with a fairly wide choice.
However, here it is very important to dwell on those of them that most fully correspond to their personal characteristics and the specifics of their educational or professional activities.
This cycle also includes the development of necessary self-recommendations
that can help a person achieve certain self-education goals. These, for example, include personal rules (principles) of behavior, the form and content of which are presented in pedagogical literature and the published diaries of many outstanding people
of the past. They determine the most typical manifestations of a person in their relationships, manner of communication, behavior, and activities in various environmental conditions. Each person, as a rule, always has demands on themself, which are reflected in their actions, communication, relationships, and activities. It is only important to highlight, analyze, and clarify them.
Based on the chosen paths, methods and means of self-education, as well as
formulated personal rules, planning of work on oneself is carried out. Its content is
reflected in the relevant programs or plans. They are usually compiled arbitrarily.
Usually they reflect what needs to be worked on, what methods and means to use,
and the approximate time frame for achieving the goal.
The implementation of self-education programs (plans) is carried out within the
framework of the fourth cycle. Its main content lies in the active practical work of the
student, which is a type of spiritual activity aimed at achieving previously formed
value orientations. The effectiveness of self-education is determined in the process of
subsequent personal self-assessment, which gives it a sign of constancy.
Despite the relative autonomy of self-education, its effectiveness largely depends on the appropriate organizational and correctional activities of teachers to update it within the framework of functioning educational systems. This activity can be
considered as a triune complex, including the solution of the following tasks:
- creation of pedagogical conditions in which self-education would be a neces-
sary element of educational, professional and other basic types of human activity;
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