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tomation and computerization of the learning process based on the use of modern information technologies.
It should be noted that domestic teachers interpret the concept of “teaching
method” differently. Some understand it as “a way of transferring knowledge to stu-
dents (D.I. Tikhomirov). Others refer to it in general as all “methods, techniques and
actions of the teacher” (K.V. Elnitsky). Still others consider it as “a set of coordinated
teaching techniques” (S.A. Ananyev), etc.
In each of the presented approaches, the authors rely on one aspect of the educational process, which impoverishes the definition methodology, which does not
take into account that the teaching method is characterized by three characteristics: it
indicates the purpose of learning, the method of assimilation and the nature of interaction between the subjects of learning. They also simplify the essence of the very
concept of “method”. At the same time, this term in a broad sense refers to the meth-
od of practical and theoretical human actions aimed at achieving set goals. And, as
you know, all learning goals are achieved through the joint efforts of teachers and
students. Therefore, by teaching methods it is advisable to understand a system of
ways of joint activity of teachers and students, in which the acquisition of knowledge,
skills and abilities, the development of the mental and physical components of a person, the formation of his social, professional and personally significant properties and
qualities are achieved. In this case, they can be considered both as ways of transmitting knowledge in a ready-made form, and as a joint activity in learning the essence
of individual phenomena, and as the organization of independent cognitive activity of
students.
No less complex and causing constant debate is the issue of classification of
teaching methods. For example, in the 20s of the last century, in domestic pedagogy
there was a struggle against the mechanical memorization of educational information
and the introduction of elements of conscious, active and creative mastery of
knowledge, skills and abilities based on the implementation of the didactic capabilities of the research method and the method of ready knowledge (B. G. Vsesvyatsky ).
During these same years, attempts were made to introduce a project method based on
the ideas of pragmatism implemented in the US educational system. Since the 30s of
the last century, the prevailing conclusion in domestic education is that there cannot
be any one universal method in teaching, but a different system must be used, which
corresponds to one or another classification.
At the same time, it should be noted that, despite the long period of scientific
development of the problem of classifying teaching methods, a unified approach has
not yet emerged in modern pedagogical literature. This is caused by different views
252
on the definition of classification characteristics. Let us consider the didactic foun-
dations of the most important of them.
- Systematization of teaching methods depends on the sources from which students draw knowledge (E.I. Petrovsky, E.Ya. Golant, etc.). On this basis, three groups
of methods are distinguished: verbal, visual and practical.
- Teaching methods are systematized depending on the nature of the educational and cognitive activity of students to master the material being studied (I.Ya. Lerner, M.N. Skatkin, etc.). From this point of view, explanatory-illustrative, reproductive, problematic, heuristic and research methods are highlighted.
- The systematization of teaching methods is based on the main stages of the
learning process (Yu.K. Babansky and others). As a result, they are combined into
three groups: methods of organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities; methods of stimulation and motivation; methods of control and self-control.
- Methods are considered as ways of organizing purposeful educational and
cognitive activity (M.A. Danilov, B.P. Esipova, etc.), which allows us to highlight
among them methods for acquiring new knowledge, methods for developing skills
and abilities as a result of applying knowledge in practice and methods for testing and
assessing knowledge, skills and abilities.
The latest classification, according to I.F. Kharlamov23, is in good agreement
with the main objectives of teaching and helps to better understand their functional
purpose. True, it does not indicate the methods that are used in the interests of consolidating (learning, remembering) the studied material. If this addition is taken into
account in the above classification, then they can be presented in the following
form:
- methods of oral presentation of educational material and activation of stu-
dents’ cognitive activity (lecture, story, explanation);
- methods of discussing the material being studied (conversation, seminar);
- methods of presenting educational material (display, demonstration, exer-
cise);
- methods of independent work (studying printed sources and sources on digital
media);
- methods of testing and assessing knowledge, skills and abilities (survey, test,
colloquium, test, exam, etc.).
Let us take a closer look at the general content of teaching methods, based on
their latest classification.
23
Харламов И.Ф. Педагогика: учеб. для студентов вузов, обуч-ся по пед. спец. / И.Ф. Харламов. -е изд.,
перераб. и доп. М.: Гардарики, 2012. С. 197.
253
General content of teaching methods
The classification of teaching methods used allows us to distinguish three
groups — a group of traditional ones, a group of active (sometimes modern) and a
group of interactive teaching methods. Traditional methods are based on the basic
principles of the associative reflex theory of learning. These include methods of oral
presentation and discussion of the material being studied, as well as methods of
demonstration (demonstration), exercises and independent work.
Methods of oral presentation of educational material involve verbalized (logically connected) delivery of educational information to students using voice. They
have become quite widespread and are used mainly in the form of a lecture, story or
explanation.
A lecture, as a method of oral presentation of educational material, provides a
detailed presentation of theoretical or practical problems, involving a detailed disclosure of complex concepts, patterns, and ideas. This essential definition reveals the
difference between this method and lecture as a form of teaching. As a result, conducting classes using the lecture method requires the teacher not only to have indepth knowledge of the problem being presented, but also to have sufficient teaching
experience and a high level of methodological skill. That is why the most trained
teachers — specialists in a particular field of knowledge — are allowed to give lectures and only after discussing its content at meetings of the relevant departments and
subject-methodological commissions.
A story is a presentation of primarily factual material in a descriptive or narrative form. At the same time, the teacher widely relies on personal educational training
and professional experience of other teachers. In this case, special attention is paid to
the selection and coverage of factual material, the use of visual teaching aids, and
leading students to the necessary generalizations and conclusions.
Explanation involves revealing the meaning of phenomena, processes and actions by presenting in narrative form the cause-and-effect relationships and relationships operating in them. In this case, the teacher pays special attention to the most
complex educational issues and captures the students’ attention on them. It is be-
lieved that the main place in explanation belongs to methods of proof and reasoning.
To explain means not only to answer the question “What is this?”, but also to explain
“Why?”, “How?”, “Why?” and so on. At the same time, the explanation requires
brevity, clarity, logic, and strict formulation of conclusions and definitions from the
teacher.
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Methods for discussing the material being studied are a way of teaching by
putting forward and justifying certain ways of solving educational and cognitive problems. These include the conversation method (interview) and the seminar method.
A conversation (in higher education, more often an interview) is a dialogical or
question-and-answer way of presenting, clarifying and consolidating educational material. Depending on the didactic purpose, the conversation can be informative (heuristic), detailed, or control-testing. The leading role during the conversation is given
to the leader of the classes. They must carefully consider the content of the topic and
goals of the lesson, highlight the range of issues, and skillfully formulate them. As
practice shows, conversations are interesting and active if the questions asked by the
teacher encourage students to think, compare, contrast, and creatively analyze their
experience and previous knowledge.
A seminar as a teaching method is an extensive theoretical discussion of an educational issue based on a scientific analysis of its components and a collective
search for ways to solve identified contradictions and problems. As modern pedagogical practice shows, the seminar method is most appropriate to use in a prepared audience. At the same time, the practice of actively discussing independently prepared reports and messages that complement or deepen the knowledge of the trainees on the
issues discussed during the seminar is considered very useful.
The seminar requires students to independently prepare for it, as well as a fairly
broad professional preparedness of the leader. In it, the main efforts of the teacher are
aimed at deep assimilation by students of the content of the educational topic during
the discussion of its current problems. Skillful regulation of speeches and activation
of the attention of participants is achieved by asking additional questions, clarifying
the elements of the material being studied, and collectively searching for answers to
the given problematic questions and tasks.
In the interests of educational preparation, the teacher’s implementation of
methods of oral presentation and discussion of educational material allows students to
develop systematized knowledge of a specific academic discipline. However, the
main goal of education is to prepare students to solve certain social, professional and
other problems. For these purposes, a number of other methods are used in the educational process.
The method of display (demonstration) involves creating in students a visual
image of the subject, phenomenon or process being studied by presenting it during a
training session. Depending on the content of the material being studied and the
method of cognitive actions of the students, various types of demonstration are used:
personal demonstration of the studied techniques and actions; demonstration with the
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help of specially trained trainees; display of real equipment, materials, tools; demonstration of videos, etc. However, didactics within a specific lesson requires an optimal
dosage of the means shown and a strict sequence of their presentation.
The exercise method is conscious repetition of mental or practical actions in
order to develop professionally important skills or abilities (skills and abilities). According to their didactic purpose, exercises are divided into introductory, basic and
training. Introductory exercises are aimed at achieving accurate execution, as a rule,
of individual elements of the actions shown. Basic exercises are carried out to bring
the execution of actions to existing requirements and to develop the appropriate
skills. Training is already necessary to maintain the developed skills and abilities at a
sufficiently high level.
The method of independent work is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and
abilities as a result of individual familiarization with theoretical sources or practicing
the necessary techniques and actions. Acting as the most important teaching method,
independent work is the internal basis of any other teaching method and a necessary
prerequisite for the didactic connection of various methods with each other. Its main
types are: work with printed sources; independent training; viewing or listening to
video and audio recordings; work with relevant educational computer programs, etc.
This is the content of traditional teaching methods, formed on the basis of the
associative-reflexive theory of learning. However, in educational institutions at various levels, teaching methods based on some other didactic theories and concepts are
increasingly being used. They form the so-called group of active learning methods.
Active learning methods, unlike traditional ones, require the direct participation of the student in the formation of the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities.
At the same time, it should be noted that the term “active teaching methods” itself is
not strictly scientific, since all teaching methods are initially designed for active joint
work between the teacher and the student. When using the term “active methods,”
they usually mean those methods and techniques of teaching that are focused primarily on the active cognitive and practical activity of the student himself. These include
educational and research work (abstracting, preparing a message or report), solving
educational and cognitive tasks (problem tasks), completing tests, coursework and
diploma works.
It should be noted that in recent years, many teachers have been looking for
such approaches to construct educational lessons in order to achieve their highest effectiveness. However, not all of them are equally applicable in different educational
settings. At the same time, some of them are still reflected in modern pedagogical lit-
256
erature, the use of which has undergone sufficient temporary and practical testing.
These include, first of all, interactive teaching methods:
- case method (method of specific situations), which involves acquiring
knowledge based on finding a way out of a certain educational and cognitive situation
that is practically significant for students;
- incident method — mastering knowledge based on finding a way out of a professionally important situation in unfavorable conditions (lack of time, information,
emergency, etc.);
- the method of generating ideas (brainstorming, etc.), provides for a group solution of an educational and cognitive task in a limited time by putting forward certain hypotheses without analyzing the logic of their formation and content;
- the shuttle method involves solving a learning problem while simultaneously
putting forward an idea and its critical analysis;
- the synectic method involves solving a specific educational problem based on
its analysis and development of a set of proposals by various specialists in a particular field of activity;
- the method of business game (role-playing) — a comprehensive solution to a
certain practically significant educational and cognitive task based on students performing the roles of various specialists;
- the discussion method involves mastering educational material based on ana-
lyzing the judgments of others, putting forward and arguing one’s own solution to an
educational-cognitive task.
At the same time, the teacher should remember the need to correctly select the
teaching methods used in the educational process. To do this, it is important to take
into account a number of interrelated factors, the most significant of which are: the
purpose of using the method, its pedagogical functions, positive and negative aspects,
the level of educational preparation of students, etc. If, for example, they need to remember a certain amount of factual material, then it is advisable to use methods of
oral presentation of educational material. They may be ineffective for achieving other
educational goals.
Each of the considered methods in the educational process is implemented
through appropriate techniques and using the necessary teaching aids.
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Techniques and teaching aids
Teaching methods in didactics are considered as specific operations of interaction between a teacher and a student in the process of implementing teaching methods, which are characterized by subject content, the cognitive activity they organize
and are determined by the purpose of application in each educational or extracurricular lesson. In pedagogical literature, they are often interpreted as part of a teaching
method, a separate act, the smallest structural unit of the learning process, a cycle of
actions aimed at solving elementary educational problems, etc.
There is no doubt that the actual activity of teaching consists of certain techniques. At the level of an academic subject, a combination of techniques makes up
methods and even complete methodological systems. Since there are many teaching
methods for each academic subject, the criteria for determining their essence, completeness, and sufficiency are the general didactic method, specifically embodied by
this method, and the cognitive activity of students organized by the teacher. Moreover, some of them are capable of serving a number of teaching methods, while others
serve only one. However, no matter how many teaching methods there are, they are
all determined by general didactic teaching methods and do not go beyond them.
In the interests of achieving the same learning goal, a specific methodology includes many combinations of various teaching techniques, which creates conditions
for selecting appropriate techniques, combining them and constructing new ones.
This is due to the specific nature of the training content, the method and planned level
of assimilation, and the degree of its effectiveness. This also takes into account the
level of students’ preparation, the specific learning situation and especially the available means of its implementation (learning tools).
Teaching aids are a mandatory element of equipping classrooms and their information and subject environment, as well as an essential component of the educational material and technical base of educational institutions. These include material
objects created specifically for educational purposes, involved in the educational process as carriers of educational information and a tool for the activities of the teacher
and students. The term “learning aids” corresponds to the following equivalents: “educational equipment”, “educational visual and teaching aids”, “didactic aids”.
A special type is made up of technical training aids (TSO). At their core, they
are auxiliary devices designed to expand the capabilities of the teacher and students,
and increase the productivity of their educational and cognitive activities. As
knowledge grows and becomes more complex, as well as the development of science
and technology, the educational material and technical base of educational institu-
258
tions is improved, facilitating better perception of educational information, its intellectual processing, storage in memory and application in practice. According to their
purpose, they are grouped into the following main groups:
- technical means of transmitting educational information (video projectors,
televisions, audio equipment, etc.);
- technical means of training (simulator machines);
- technical means of knowledge control (controller machines, computers);
- technical means of self-learning (teaching machines, computers, etc.).
The considered forms, methods, techniques and teaching aids are used primarily to transmit educational information. However, the educational process also involves monitoring and assessing the level, completeness and quality of knowledge,
skills and abilities of students. This task is solved within the framework of a specific
process that uses appropriate forms and methods and is designated in didactics by the
concept of “learning diagnostics.”
Diagnostics of training
Diagnostics of learning is the process of identifying, evaluating and compar-
ing, at one or another stage of learning, the results of students’ educational activities
with the requirements specified by the curriculum. According to the Law of the Rus-
sian Federation “On Education in the Russian Federation”, the basis for an objective
assessment of the level of education and qualifications of graduates, regardless of the
form of education, are the Federal State Educational Standards.
Diagnostics of learning is a mandatory component of the educational process.
As a result, it is also endowed with a number of important functions. For example,
the monitoring function involves identifying the level of knowledge, skills and abilities of students acquired at each stage of training in order to determine their readiness
for further education or professional activity. The teaching function lies in the fact
that the student not only answers the teacher’s questions and completes his assignments, but also comprehends the answers of their friends and makes their own adjustments to them. The educational function involves systematic control over educational activities, which increases the responsibility of students for the work performed, teaches them to work, independently solve the tasks assigned to them, and
correctly evaluate their educational results and capabilities. The incentive function is
aimed at stimulating the educational and cognitive activity of students in order to obtain a higher assessment of the knowledge, skills and abilities being tested.
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To fully implement the listed functions of learning diagnostics, it is important
to fulfill a number of requirements arising from its principles:
- objectivity, which consists in the scientifically based content of diagnostic
procedures, the equal attitude of the teacher towards all students, adequate to the established objective criteria for assessing knowledge, skills and abilities;
- systematicity, consisting in carrying out diagnostics at all stages of the educational process — from the initial perception of educational material to its practical
application;
- transparency, which provides for open testing of all students according to the
same criteria.
Depending on the place of testing and assessment of knowledge, skills and
abilities in the educational process, the amount of tasks allocated for testing, time
and the number of students, four types of diagnostics are distinguished:
- current control carried out by the teacher (teacher) during daily educational
work, mainly during training sessions;
- periodic control, which is carried out after studying a topic or section of the
curriculum;
- intermediate control (interim certification), carried out at the end of the academic semester (quarter) or academic year;
- final control (final certification), which is carried out at the final stage of
training at a specific educational level (primary, basic, secondary, higher, etc.).
Depending on the volume of educational material and the nature of the ques-
tions in didactics, the following forms of diagnostics are distinguished:
- oral questioning, which is based on assessing students’ oral responses to
questions asked by the teacher;
- test work, which requires students to complete a specific written, graphic or
practical task;
- colloquium (Latin colloquium — conversation, conversation) — a lesson
aimed at assessing the level of knowledge of students in individual parts, sections,
topics or issues of the course being studied that are not included in the topics of seminars and other forms of group classes;
- test — an individual (group) interview or practical work to assess the level of
knowledge, skills and abilities of students. In higher and secondary vocational educational institutions, it is organized after the completion of seminars and practical classes in a certain section of the educational course, educational or industrial practice, as
well as after completing a series of laboratory or computational and graphic work;
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- exam (Latin examen — weighing, testing) — an oral, written or practical
form of testing the knowledge, skills and abilities of students in an academic discipline as a whole or in one of its sections. It is usually carried out at the end of the semester or academic year. Depending on the purpose, entrance, current and final exams are distinguished;
- course work — independent educational scientific and methodological work
performed under the guidance of a teacher in general scientific and special subjects of
the curriculum. In addition to assessing knowledge, it provides for the development
of skills for independent creative educational work, in-depth study of any issue, topic
or section of an academic discipline;
- final qualification work (bachelor's diploma or master's thesis) — an independent study of one of the current issues in the field of study or specialty chosen by
the student (students) in order to assess the level of their theoretical knowledge, as
well as the skills of their analysis, systematization and generalization. Defended at
meetings of state examination commissions of secondary and higher vocational education institutions.
Each of the considered forms of training diagnostics reveals only its organizational side. At the same time, its implementation in the specific conditions of an educational institution can be carried out in different ways. This depends on the diagnostic method implemented within its framework. In the Russian educational system,
these currently include:
- oral testing, carried out through individual or frontal questioning of students.
This is the most flexible diagnostic method, which is used at all stages of training and
helps to easily maintain contact with students, monitor their thoughts and actions, and
correct answers;
- written testing is carried out using special tests (in mathematics, physics,
chemistry, etc.), essays, dictations, etc. In order to reduce the time for checking written work, in recent years special printed manuals have been used, in which students
are filling in the gaps and programmed aids (cards, punched cards, etc.) with words,
letters, signs or numbers;
- practical testing is aimed at diagnosing students’ skills by using laboratory
equipment, as well as applying existing knowledge to prove certain theoretical provisions of an applied nature. Often combined with written and graphic work, solving
experimental problems that require special experiments;
- programmed (machine) testing — diagnostics of knowledge and individual
skills of students using a computer or special monitoring machines. It can be used at
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