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Файл:Psychology and pedagogy. Study aid
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information and pedagogical services (libraries, media libraries, etc.), pedagogical
and medical services. The intensive inclusion of new information means in the learning process was noted only within the framework of humanities subjects.
At the same time, studies have shown that teachers of secondary schools mainly accept only three directions for using computers, i.e. they use the computer as a
means of preparing for classes (searching, selecting, creating and replicating educational information), as a means of diagnostics, training, knowledge correction, skills
and abilities of students and as a means of facilitating work with pedagogical documentation. In most cases, the teacher reserves the functions of teaching itself. School
teachers explain this by the contradiction between the collective forms of learning
characteristic of the classroom-lesson system and the individualization of learning
stimulated by personal computers. Another problem is the likely decrease in interpersonal contacts due to increased access to information impersonal in information technology.
An important range of problems is related to the legal foundations of informatization of the educational process. Among them are the rights of students to
obtain the necessary information from various sources, protection from the use of information about students by others as a result of the existing possibility of unauthorized access to school databases. No less important are the problems of copyright protection for developments made by teachers, the use for educational purposes of information that is prohibited from free distribution, as well as the protection of information from intentional and unintentional damage due to the harmful effects of computer viruses, etc.
The factors considered and a number of other factors have both an objective
and subjective basis, but, manifested in interrelation, with equal intensity they influence the productivity and quality of the educational process of an educational institution. Along with goals, functions and motives, they not only characterize the learning
process in a certain way, but also have a significant impact on the development of its
methodological foundations.
7.2. METHODOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF TRAINING
The methodological foundations of teaching, as well as the educational process
as a whole, include several fundamental positions, the most important of which are,
first of all, its laws. When considering them, it is of great importance that teaching, as
already noted, is considered in modern pedagogical literature as a means of educa-
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tion. It follows that the patterns manifested in it may largely coincide in their content.
This is difficult to deny, but still each of them has its own specifics.
Patterns of learning
From the point of view of pedagogy, learning patterns are understood as objectively existing and recurring stable connections, relationships and dependencies between elements of the educational process (goals, content, quality, methods, functions, motives, factors, etc.). At the same time, they must be distinguished from the
laws of didactics, which present strictly fixed relationships between didactic objects,
and also establish the type, form, nature and limits of their manifestation.
To clarify the logical basis for the classification of numerous and multifaceted
patterns of learning, teachers-researchers have created a special didactic model. In it,
the learning process is considered as a system, the components of which are various
aspects of a holistic phenomenon, which include the following components:
- didactic, summarizing connections and relationships between the actual di-
dactic elements of the educational process;
- epistemological, defining it in the aspect of students’ knowledge of objective
reality, facts and laws, and themselves;
- psychological, relating primarily to internal (mental) cognitive activity in the
learning process;
- cybernetic, reflecting all the variety of connections that appear in the course
of managing the assimilation of educational information;
- sociological, covering relationships between participants in the educational
process;
- organizational, revealing the relationships that arise during the organization
of educational and teaching work, their material and technical equipment, stimulation
of teaching and educational-cognitive activities of students.
It should be noted that when considering patterns, it is of great importance that
in recent years education, as a means of formation and subsequent development of
personality, includes two interrelated processes — training and upbringing. It follows
that it is necessary, first of all, to highlight those of them that are inherent in both —
the so-called general educational patterns. They are characterized by a peculiar
identification of general or complex factors that determine the productivity of learning through their influence, as well as brevity and precision of formulation. These in
domestic didactics in recent years include:
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a) the focus of education on solving the problems of comprehensive and harmonious development of the individual;
b) the activity-based nature of training and education;
c) the unity of the need-motivational sphere of students and their educational
and cognitive activity;
d) showing respect and demandingness towards students without infringing on
their personal dignity;
e) taking into account the individual characteristics of students and some others.
Skillful consideration of the nature of the listed patterns in the educational process serves as an important prerequisite for its didactic effectiveness. However, being
a specific pedagogical phenomenon aimed at mastering knowledge, as well as the
formation of skills and abilities, learning, undoubtedly, also has its own specific pat-
terns inherent in the educational component itself. What dependencies are reflected
in them?
- Patterns of learning objectives. This reflects the natural dependence of the
formed educational goals on the level and pace of development of society, its needs
and capabilities, the level of development of pedagogical science and practice.
- Regularities of training content. Special studies in recent years have proven
that the content of education at various stages of social development depends on the
goals of education, social needs, the pace of social, scientific and technical progress,
and the material and technical capabilities of the educational institution.
- Regularities of teaching quality. No one doubts the fact that the quality of
education depends on the productivity of the previous educational stage and the results achieved at it, the nature and volume of educational material, the learning ability
of students and the time of training.
- Patterns of teaching methods. Here we are talking about the dependence of
the effectiveness of the teaching methods used on their knowledge and skills of application by teachers, the goals and content of training, logistics, and features of the organization of the educational process.
- Patterns of learning management. The effectiveness of educational process
management is determined by the intensity of feedback in the educational system and
the validity of corrective influences.
- Patterns of stimulating learning. They reveal the natural dependence of
learning productivity on internal (motivational) and external learning stimuli.
The nature of the manifestation of the listed patterns largely depends on the
specific learning conditions. However, it should be noted that their mandatory consideration in the learning process is an important prerequisite for its didactic effec-
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tiveness. If, for example, a teacher does not form positive motives for learning activities in a student, he is unlikely to be able to maintain his stable educational and cognitive activity.
If we consider the considered and some other patterns of learning to be sufficiently substantiated in a scientific sense, then they should act as fundamental requirements for the practical organization of the educational process. In pedagogy,
these requirements are usually called principles of teaching. They reflect the characteristics of the educational process in specific conditions (for example, when studying
in a vocational school or higher educational institution).
Principles of training
It should be noted that the doctrine of principles occupies one of the central
places in didactics. The very concept of “principle” in a logical sense serves as the
beginning or basis for organizing activities, leadership, reasoning, scientific research,
and the like. That is why the principles of learning are usually understood as the starting points arising from the identified patterns, the implementation of the requirements
of which is aimed at ensuring the effectiveness of the educational process. In the
structure of the main categories of the learning process, they follow the patterns, being their reflection. If the laws of learning express the most essential connections of
this process, which determine its effectiveness, then the principles reveal how to use
these learned connections in pedagogical practice.
The general principles of didactics have been understood and developed in
pedagogical science for several centuries. Their founder is considered to be the great
Czech humanist teacher Jan Amos Comenius, who in 1657 was the first to set out
reasonable requirements for the organization and content of education in one of his
main works, “The Great Didactics.” Following him, the principles of teaching were
identified and enriched by the classics of Western European and domestic pedagogy.
Their development continues actively in modern pedagogical science. Currently,
some pedagogical theorists conditionally divide them into “classical”, reflecting the
results of the centuries-old development of didactics, and “modern”, manifested in
the educational process of recent decades.
The classic principles in modern domestic pedagogy most often include the
principles of scientific teaching, consciousness and activity of students, systematicity,
consistency and continuity in teaching, visibility, accessibility of educational information, the strength of the formed knowledge, skills and abilities, and the connection
between theory and practice. Their very name is a laconic description of the essence
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of the principles and guides the teacher to create conditions under which learning will
take place most effectively (productively). However, their implementation presupposes the fulfillment of certain requirements (rules) in the organization and implementation of the educational process. Let's look at this using the example of revealing
the main content of the most important of them.
The principle of scientific teaching for a long time was not mandatory in the
organization of training, since science itself for a certain time did not play a significant role in professional and other types of human activity. However, in the 19th century, due to the increasing role of knowledge in social production, along with ordinary everyday interpretations of the phenomena of the surrounding world, its scientific understanding became necessary. Following this, the question arose about introducing the principle of science into the education system.
The main meaning of the principle is that students should be presented with only scientifically based educational information that has undergone a specially organized examination in the form of public scientific defense. This is what forms in them
the understanding that everything in this world is subject to laws, the knowledge and
application of which is necessary for every person living in a modern civilized society.
The implementation of the principle in the educational process of an educational institution requires teachers to fulfill the following requirements:
- educational material must correspond to modern achievements of science in
the system of scientific knowledge being studied (history, philosophy, pedagogy,
etc.). Forced simplification of complex scientific provisions should not lead to a distortion of their scientific essence, and the terminology should remain the same
throughout the entire study;
- it is necessary to acquaint students with the latest achievements in the relevant sciences, ongoing discussions and put forward hypotheses. They need to be introduced in an accessible form to the methods of scientific research and included in
independent research work at various levels (report, abstract, coursework and dissertation);
- it is important not only the scientific interpretation of individual phenomena,
especially in the field of social sciences, but also familiarity with different points of
view on their assessment;
- the study of the laws of development of the objective world should form a
scientific worldview in students;
- in the learning process it is necessary to carry out a critical analysis of various
kinds of pseudoscientific and erroneous theories, views and ideas.
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Another equally important principle of learning is the principle of consciousness and activity of students. Its significance lies in the need to form in students the
correct attitude towards the surrounding reality and corresponding beliefs. At the
same time, it is known that only that knowledge becomes beliefs that are acquired
consciously.
Consciousness in mastering educational material largely depends on the activities of the teacher. He needs to constantly analyze the level of attention of students
during the learning process and stimulate it by posing problematic questions. In this
regard, a number of requirements can be identified, the fulfillment of which corresponds to the requirements of the principle under consideration.
The meaning of the educational goals and objectives assigned to them should
be clear to students. In this regard, the training session (lesson) should begin with the
formulation of a cognitive problem and be conducted based on the previous experience of the students, on the knowledge system they have already formed. To this end,
the teacher must use all the teaching techniques available to him to arouse interest in
the material being studied.
Students must assimilate in the learning process not only information about objects and phenomena, but also understand their inner essence, as a result of which
they come to an understanding of patterns, which they can then use in their practical
activities.
Research by psychologists shows that the most important condition for student
activity is the presence of self-control and self-esteem in the learning process. Therefore, one of the tasks of the teacher is to develop their needs and skills for such activities. Self-control and self-assessment should become a mandatory element of modern
educational technologies.
A special role in the conscious and active assimilation of knowledge belongs to
cognitive interest, which can manifest itself through the use of vivid examples, additional educational material unknown to students, etc. To effectively implement the
principle, it is also necessary to generate interest not so much in the content of the
educational material, but in the process itself training.
The principle of systematicity, consistency and continuity of education was
first formulated by Ya.A. Komenius, who believed that in it, as in nature, everything
should be interconnected and expedient. In this case, the presentation of educational
material should be brought to the level of systematicity in the minds of students as a
result of its certain sequence and interconnectedness. At the same time, this principle
presupposes continuity of learning, that is, a logical sequence and connection be-
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tween academic subjects studied at different educational levels, which determines the
reliance of new educational material on previously learned material.
The implementation of the principle under consideration in the educational
process of educational institutions involves the implementation of the following
rules:
- expedient planning of educational work (for example, the study of new material should be based on previously acquired knowledge; conducting seminars, practical and laboratory classes should be carried out only after the theoretical component
of the educational topic has been completed);
- the teacher does not have the moral right to proceed to the presentation of
subsequent educational material if he is not sure that the previous one has been mastered (even if it is limited by the framework of the curriculum or the number of hours
allocated to the study of a particular educational topic);
- at each lesson it is necessary to create theoretical prerequisites for studying
the subsequent educational topic;
- constant repetition of the studied educational material. However, repetition
should not be reduced only to the reproduction of what has been covered (the reproductive approach is precisely oriented towards such reproduction — repetition after a
lesson, retelling what was read in a textbook, etc.). It is necessary that when repeating
previously studied educational material, students consider it from new positions, link
it with their personal experience, with personal observations, with knowledge in other
academic disciplines.
Of great importance for the implementation of the principle of systematicity,
consistency and continuity in the educational process is the ability of students to visually imagine the system of knowledge being studied (the principle of visibility),
which they are able to assimilate (the principle of accessibility), which has been fixed
in their minds in the form of skills and abilities (the principle of strength), and which
they are able to implement in their practical activities.
In modern didactics, the considered and other classical principles retain their
original meaning and at the same time are developed, enriched, and supplemented
with new fundamental ideas, which may subsequently acquire the status of independent didactic principles. In recent decades, these include a number of modern teaching
principles, which include the creation of optimal conditions for learning, advanced
learning, support (use of reference signals), learning at a high level of difficulties and
a number of others.
Each of the teaching principles performs a characteristic didactic function inherent in it. Therefore, they cannot be ranked in order of importance. A systematic
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approach to understanding the interconnection, interdependence, mutual influence
and interdependence of all the listed principles of learning, which are implemented
simultaneously within the framework of a particular theory or concept of learning, is
considered rational.
Basic theories and concepts of learning
It should be taken into account that the educational process, focusing primarily
on the ideas of humanism, is carried out in accordance with certain laws, on the basis
of relevant theories of psychology and pedagogy.
Domestic and foreign scientists and teachers, as a result of research confirmed
by practice, formulated several theories of learning. Each of them takes as a basis
the complex dialectical relationship of all mental processes of the individual (sensations, perception, memory, thinking, etc.), as well as the motives, needs, interests,
feelings and will of teachers and students. To date, two theories have become most
widespread in our country: associative-reflex and sequential formation of mental actions.
The associative-reflex theory of learning is founded on the basic patterns of
conditioned reflex activity of the human cerebral cortex, which were most fully illuminated in the works of famous domestic scientists I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov.
Their conclusions formed the basis of a theory, in the development of which prominent Russian scientists S.L. Rubinstein, Yu.A. Samarin and Yu.K. Babansky subsequently took part. The authors proceeded from the fact that the process of mastering
knowledge, skills and abilities consistently consists of the presentation of educational
material, its perception, comprehension, memorization and subsequent application in
practice, i.e., operating the acquired knowledge in everyday life and professional activities. The sequence of the learning process within the framework of this theory is
clearly shown in Fig. 3.
Предъявление
Восприятие
Осмысление
Запоминание
Применение
Fig. 3. The sequence of organizing the educational process according to
associative-reflexive theory of learning
The theory under consideration is implemented in almost all types of educational institutions, from preschool to schools of higher professional education. For its
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productive use, it is necessary to comply with a number of pedagogical conditions.
These include: the formation of an active attitude of students towards learning; clear
and consistent presentation of educational material; activation of cognitive activity of
students; demonstration of various techniques of mental action and their consolidation with the help of appropriate exercises.
The main advantage of the theory is the ability for students to assimilate a large
amount of theoretical knowledge, which should become the basis for solving practical problems. Moreover, it is necessary to take into account that depending on the
level of acquired knowledge, the degree of its influence on practical activities also
increases.
However, a specialist trained on the basis of the provisions of the theory under
consideration, figuratively speaking, knows a lot, but can do little. That is why recently a number of methods and techniques have been developed that increase the effectiveness of training within the framework of the stated approach. However, as the
analysis shows, there has been no significant progress. Apparently, the didactic capabilities of a sufficiently developed and streamlined theory have already been fully realized.
A completely different approach to organizing the educational process is provided in the theory of sequential (stage-by-stage) formation of mental actions. It began to be developed in the early 50s of the 20th century and is currently still considered unfinished. It is based on the scientific developments of prominent domestic scientists P.Ya. Galperin, D.B. Elkonin, N.F. Talyzina and others, who came to the conclusion that the knowledge, skills and abilities formed during the learning process
cannot be acquired outside human activity. In the course of his practice, an indicative
basis is created as a system of ideas about the goal, plan and means of carrying out
the upcoming or performed action. That is, in order to accurately perform any action,
a person must know what will happen and what aspects of what is happening should
be focused on. These provisions formed the basis of the theory under consideration,
which provides for the acquisition of professional knowledge, skills and abilities on
the basis of a consistent transition from practical action to awareness of its meaning.
In other words, skills and abilities are initially formed, and then knowledge. In this
case, the assimilation cycle consists of several stages, shown in Fig. 4.
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Изучение
последовательно-
сти выполнения
действия
Выполнение
предписанных
действий
Внешнеречевое
проговаривание
последователь-
ности
Внутреннерече-
вое проговаривание последо-
вательности
Осмысление
выполненного
действия
Fig. 4. Algorithm for organizing the educational process according
to theory of consistent formation of mental actions
At the first stage, as a result of studying the sequence of performing the required action (for example, instructions, algorithm of actions), the so-called indicative basis for its implementation is formed.
At the second stage, students perform the described actions. This stage is called
materialized action.
The third stage is external speech. During the course, students recite out loud
the actions they are mastering.
At the fourth stage, the sequence of action is spoken out without external
speech accompaniment (“to oneself”).
The process of assimilation is completed at the fifth (mental) stage as a result
of the transition of the action to the internal plane due to the understanding of its semantic meaning and content.
The sequence of stages of assimilation in this case is fundamentally different
from the associative-reflex theory and seems to contradict the psychological theory of
cognition. However, an analysis of practice shows that this approach to organizing
training is quite effective in many cases.
The strengths of this theory are: reducing the time for developing skills and
abilities by describing or demonstrating exemplary performance of learned actions;
achieving high automation of performed actions due to their algorithmization; ensuring accessible quality control of both the action as a whole and its individual operations; the possibility of prompt correction of teaching methods in order to improve
and optimize them.
At the same time, during the implementation of the theory, there is a significant
limitation in the ability to assimilate theoretical knowledge, and difficulties arise in
the development of methodological material. In addition, as the analysis shows, students form some stereotypes of thinking and motor actions to the detriment of the development of their intellectual creativity.
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