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all stages of education and in recent years has been recognized as the most objective
method of educational diagnostics;
- test assessment involves assessing students' knowledge based on an analysis
of the number of correctly solved educational standardized tasks. It is implemented in
machine (mainly using a computer) and blank versions. Its main advantage is the ease
of unambiguously assessing the answers of all students, since the number of correct
answers can be correlated with a certain score, which increases its objectivity;
- self-testing involves developing the ability to independently assess the level
of one’s knowledge, skills and abilities, to find mistakes and inaccuracies, and to out-
line ways to eliminate identified gaps.
Diagnostics of learning involves not only assessment as a process, but also as-
sessment of knowledge, skills and abilities of students as its result.
Assessment of knowledge, skills and abilities
Quantitative assessment of the knowledge, skills and abilities acquired by students is expressed in points (grades), and qualitative assessment — in value judgments and conclusions of the teacher, containing characteristics of the advantages and
disadvantages of students' answers. In this regard, the assessment of knowledge,
skills and abilities is considered in didactics as a process of determining quantitative
and (or) qualitative indicators of theoretical and practical training of students to existing assessment requirements.
The first point-based grading system arose in medieval schools in Germany.
Each point indicated the student’s rank in terms of academic performance among
other students (1st—best, 2nd—average, 3rd—worst). Later, the middle category, to
which the largest number of students belonged, was further divided into three more
classes, resulting in a five-point scale, which was borrowed by domestic teachers.
After 1917, the idea of education without grades developed in Russia. It corresponded to the concept of the Soviet labor school, in which educational activities
were conceived on the basis of student interest, focused on the free, creative nature of
the lesson, which formed the independence and initiative of students. As a result, in
1918, grades, as well as all types of exams and individual testing of students in the
classroom were abolished. Instead, teachers were recommended to have periodic
conversations with students on topics covered, oral and written reports, student reports on books read, keeping diaries and books in which all types of student work
were recorded.
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However, during the formation years of the Soviet school and changes in the
content of education, it was not possible to consolidate such a system of assessments,
since it required a restructuring of the educational process as a whole. That is why in
1932 the principle of systematically recording the knowledge of each student (tests,
exams) was restored, and in 1935 — a differentiated five-point grading system
through verbal marks (“excellent”, “good”, “satisfactory”, “bad”, “very bad”). In
1944, verbal marks were replaced by a digital five-point grading system.
Currently, in Russian schools, as well as in schools in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and others, a five-point marking system has been adopted, in Bulgaria
and Germany — a six-point system, in Ukraine — a twelve-point system, in the UK
and the USA — a hundred points.
To increase the objectivity of assessing knowledge, skills and abilities, domestic schools have developed the practice of developing approximate assessment stand-
ards, which indicate what requirements the student’s oral or written answers, the re-
sults of practical or laboratory work must meet in order to be certified with the appropriate score. In the most general form, the assessment criteria, for example, the-
oretical knowledge, are as follows:
- excellent “5” is usually given to a student for knowledge that fully meets the
requirements of the curriculum;
- good “4” — for knowledge within the scope of the program requirements
with minor deviations (for example, the logic of presentation of the material is violated);
- satisfactory “3” — for the existing amount of knowledge, allowing the stu-
dent to move further when studying subsequent material;
- unsatisfactory “2” — if existing knowledge does not allow or significantly
complicates learning new material;
- bad “1” is set when the student knows nothing at all about the topic or subject
being assessed. However, this assessment is used extremely rarely in teaching practice, since, according to most teachers, it has the same meaning as “unsatisfactory.”
The criteria for assessing the actions of students when performing practical or
laboratory work look similar. However, in this case, temporary, quantitative or qualitative indicators are used.
The outlined point system for assessing the knowledge, skills and abilities of
students has not yet found a worthy replacement, although in the domestic educational system there is a positive experience of learning without grades, proposed by
L.V. Zankov and Sh.A. Amonashvili. At the same time, many domestic teachers are
introducing new features into the traditional assessment system. So, for example, in
the experience of V.A. Sukhomlinsky, marks were given only for positive results of
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academic work. V.F. Shatalov introduced the so-called “open knowledge record
sheets” — each mark received is entered on a special form, which is posted in the
classroom. It is provided that the student can correct the grade to a higher one at any
time. The presented and some other approaches to assessing knowledge, skills and
abilities allow the teacher to take a creative approach to organizing the educational
process, which ultimately helps to improve its efficiency and quality.
Thus, the considered organizational and pedagogical components of the educational process indicate sufficient theoretical and applied elaboration of this area of
domestic didactics. The types and forms of educational activities implemented in the
learning process create the necessary didactic prerequisites for its organization in an
educational institution of any level. At the same time, knowledge and creative implementation in professional pedagogical activities of methods, techniques and means
of managing the educational and cognitive process make it possible to successfully
solve educational problems and achieve educational goals.
Questions and tasks for self-testing of knowledge
1. Outline the grounds for the fundamental difference between explanatory-
illustrative and problem-based types of learning.
2. What explains the need to distinguish class-lesson and lecture-seminar edu-
cation systems in domestic educational institutions?
3. What are the main criteria for the classification of forms and methods of
teaching in domestic didactics?
4. Determine the interdependence of the implementation of techniques and
teaching aids.
5. What are the conditions for implementing the learning diagnostic functions
during the assessment of knowledge, skills and abilities.
Additional literature
1. Бороздина, Г.В. Психология и педагогика: учебник для бакалавров /
Г.В. Бороздина. — 2-е изд., испр. и доп. — Москва : Юрайт, 2016. — 477 с.
2. Психология и педагогика: в 2 ч. Ч 2: педагогика : учебник для академического бакалавриата / под общей редакцией В.А. Сластенина, В.П. Каширина. — Москва : Юрайт, 2016. — 374 с.
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CHAPTER 9
EDUCATIONAL ENVIRONMENT
The essence and content of education. Education as a concrete historical
phenomenon. The essence and content of education. Specifics of education in a
group. Features of personality-oriented education. Place and pedagogical functions
of the teacher. Principles of education.
Organizational and pedagogical foundations of education. Educational sys-
tem. Educational interaction. Age approach in education. Self-determination, selfawareness and self-esteem of the individual. Self-education as a direction of personal
improvement.
As is known, the educational process is aimed at the formation and consistent
development of a person’s personal sphere. In this regard, it implements several relatively independent but interrelated functions. The leading one is educational, which
determines the content of a specific type of activity of teachers, implemented in the
interests of personal improvement of people. In pedagogy, this activity is revealed in
the corresponding theory — the theory of education.
9.1. THE ESSENCE AND CONTENT OF EDUCATION
It should be noted that education is a phenomenon closely related to the socioeconomic, political and cultural level of society and the state, as well as their ethnosocial traditions and socio-psychological characteristics of the people living in
them. This allows us to talk about it as a concrete historical pedagogical phenomenon.
Education as concrete historical pedagogical phenomenon
In the early stages of human development, education was merged with sociali-
zation, carried out in the process of children’s practical participation in the life of
adults (industrial, social, ritual, play, etc.). However, it was limited only to the assimilation of life and practical experience, as well as everyday rules passed down
from generation to generation. At the same time, the division of labor between men
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and women determined the difference in the education (more precisely, in the socialization) of boys and girls.
The increasing complexity of people's work and life has led to the allocation of
education to a special sphere of public life. Systematic training, the forms of which
are differentiated over time, begins to play an increasingly important role. Thus, already in the clan community there appeared people who specialized in transferring
experience to its younger members in certain types of activities (hunters, fishermen,
cattle breeders, elders, priests, etc.). Moreover, all children received approximately
the same upbringing, which in general can be considered as a kind of natural upbringing.
In early class societies, the goals and content of education were determined
primarily by socio-economic relations and the ideology of society. It was focused on
instilling in a person qualities that are positively valued in society, familiarization
with culture and the development of inclinations and abilities in accordance with
class affiliation. From a pedagogical point of view, such upbringing was formative.
This led to some individualization of education and at the same time to its social differentiation, since the content of home education was determined by the property status of the family and its class affiliation. Family education was supplemented by the
emerging system of public education, which from the very beginning acquired a class
character.
In the Middle Ages, educational institutions arose for the children of traders
and artisans — craft or guild schools, guild schools. With the development of manufacturing and factory production, a system of schools for children of workers appeared, providing the minimum of general educational and professional knowledge
and skills necessary for professional activities. Later, schools were organized for
peasant children. In all educational institutions of this time, religious education occupied a large place.
In the process of creating a system of public education, preparation for life was
separated from practical participation in it, turning into a relatively autonomous social phenomenon. The formation and development of its system already in the 17th
century determined the formation and intensive development of the science of education — pedagogy. Interest in its problems has also emerged in a number of other sciences. Numerous concepts of education have appeared (authoritarian, natural, free,
etc.), developed in accordance with the requests of the relevant social groups and on
the basis of various philosophical teachings.
In the 19th century, as a result of the strengthening of bourgeois social relations,
the intensive development of industry, the penetration of capitalist relations into the
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countryside, and the emergence of civil society, the requirements for the training of
workers for all spheres of socio-economic, spiritual and political life of society increased significantly. Therefore, the further development of the public education system in many countries led to a gradual transition, first to universal primary and then
to secondary education. Education becomes one of the most important functions of
the state. By setting before it the task of effectively forming the type of citizen necessary for iy, the state was more and more consistently engaged in improving the entire
education system as a whole.
Since the middle of the 20th century, the general orientation of education has
changed. It is increasingly acquiring a developmental character, which is associated
with the rapid urbanization and industrialization of the world community, scientific
and technological progress. An equally significant influence on the development of
the state educational system is exerted by the complication of the social structure of
society, the transformation of a “big family” (including three or more generations)
into a “small” one (parents and their children), the introduction of universal education
and its differentiation, and the increase in the educational role of the mass media information. The greater independence of children from their parents (especially in urban areas) and the growing influence of their peers on them (both in the form of
groups organized by adults and informal groups) have led to the emergence of a significant number of relatively independent sources of influence on the younger generations. This caused the need to clarify the essence and content of education in the conditions of a modern civilized society.
The essence and content of education
It should be taken into account that the category “education” is one of the main
ones in pedagogy. Historically, various approaches to considering its essence have
developed. Characterizing the scope of the concept, many teacher-researchers distinguish upbringing in a broad social sense, including the impact on the personality of
society as a whole (i.e., identifying upbringing with socialization), and upbringing in
a narrow sense — as a purposeful activity designed to form in people a certain a system of personality traits, views and beliefs. Often it is also interpreted in an even
more local meaning — as a solution to a specific educational task (for example, fostering social activity, collectivism, etc.). A generalization of the presented and some
other approaches, taking into account the features of the current stage of development
of domestic pedagogy, allows education to be understood as the process of pedagogi-
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cal interaction between the teacher and the student with the aim of forming in the latter the necessary system of personal properties and qualities.
As is known, the physical, mental and social development of the individual is
carried out under the influence of external and internal, social and natural, controlled
and uncontrollable factors. It occurs in the process of its socialization, that is, a person’s assimilation of values, norms, attitudes, patterns of behavior inherent in a given
society, social community, group, and his reproduction of social connections and social experience. Consequently, socialization occurs both under conditions of spontaneous influence on a developing person by factors of social existence (in essence,
very contradictory), and under the influence of socially controlled circumstances and
conditions specially created in the process of education.
The process and result of human development under the influence of heredity,
environment and upbringing in pedagogy is usually called the formation of personali-
ty. The ability to develop is the most important personality trait throughout a person’s
life. At the same time, the traditional point of view was that education is carried out
only in relation to younger generations. Only in the 20th century did the problem of
adult education begin to be actively developed, which was reflected in the emergence
of a special branch of pedagogical knowledge — andragogy.
From a content point of view, education is classified in different ways. Let's
focus on the most common approaches.
- The generalized classification includes mental, labor, physical and other types
of education.
- Often, taking into account aspects of the educational process, they call (in
various combinations) ideological-political, patriotic, moral, international, aesthetic,
legal, environmental and economic education.
- There are also concepts of pragmatic, civic, value, collectivist, communicative education, etc.
- On an institutional basis, they distinguish family, school, confessional (religious) education, as well as education in children's and youth organizations, at the
place of residence (in American pedagogy — community), in special educational institutions, etc.
According to the dominant principles and style of relations between educators
and those being educated, authoritarian, free and democratic education are distinguished.
The problem of educational goals, which also have a specific historical nature,
is also debatable. Real goals are always specific not only for a certain era, but also for
specific social systems, as well as specific institutions. That is why in various peda-
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gogical concepts its goal is interpreted depending on the socio-philosophical positions of the authors. In recent years, in domestic pedagogy, it is mainly understood as
the formation of a comprehensively and harmoniously developed personality, combining spiritual wealth, moral purity and physical perfection.
Depending on a person’s age, education is carried out by various entities: the
family, which plays a critical role in the formation of basic personality qualities, special state institutions, educational institutions, public organizations, cultural institutions, mass media, enterprises and institutions (in the form of corporate education),
religious organizations, etc. Moreover, the role of each of them is unequal. The
school, of course, plays a leading role, since it is entrusted with the main functions
and responsibilities in educating the younger generations. Through the system of state
and public educational institutions, the state and society strive, on the one hand, to
provide equal opportunities for the education of all its citizens, and on the other, to
create conditions for everyone to realize their potential and develop their abilities and
interests.
It is also necessary to take into account that modern pedagogy considers the
process of education not as a direct impact on the student (as was traditionally believed for many years), but as a social interaction of various subjects: individual (specific people), group (microgroups, groups and collectives) and social institutions of
education. The content and nature of such interaction are determined by social values,
ideology and social psychology.
The ideas of a particular society determine the life activity of various types and
types of social communities, as well as people’s attitudes towards the world and
themselves. That is why modern education is aimed at developing in the individual,
on the one hand, moral and ideological stability, and on the other, flexibility. In a rapidly changing world, a person can live and function effectively only with high personal flexibility. He needs the ability to receive and assimilate new information, to
adapt to economic, social and psychological changes both in society and the state,
and in the immediate social environment, in his own destiny.
At the same time, a person needs to have a certain inner core, worldview, and
beliefs, otherwise, with every change in the development of society and the state, or
individual life path, a person may experience a neurotic reaction, maladaptation, disintegration of the personality, up to its collapse. This is especially evident in the process of interaction between a person and the people around him, united in groups
(collectives), which gives education a certain specificity.
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Specifics of education in a group (team)
It should be noted that the affirmation of the leading role of the collective in
the formation of personality was one of the main differences of the socialist education
system. The fact that domestic pedagogy, based on the progressive concept of
A.S. Makarenko for its time, which involves the formation of personality in a team,
in the 30s of the last century, abandoned the focus on the personal components of a
person, placing the team at the center of educational activities, was declared a great
advantage and a major step forward in the development of the theory and practice of
education. For several decades, the team became the center of educational efforts, and
its formation was the main task of the national school.
Today, when the past educational experience is comprehended, it has become
clear that attempts to remake the individual nature of a person turned out to be
straightforward and simplified. Only a harmonious combination of personal and collective is most consistent with mature ideas about education. Raising a growing person as the formation of a developed personality is now one of the main tasks of modern Russian society.
Overcoming a person’s alienation from his true essence and the formation of a
spiritually developed personality in the process of historical development of society
does not occur automatically. It requires sufficient efforts aimed both at creating material opportunities, objective social conditions, and at realizing the new opportunities
that open up at each historical stage for the spiritual and moral improvement of man.
However, the presence of objective conditions in itself does not solve the problem of forming a developed personality. It is necessary to organize a systematic upbringing process based on knowledge and taking into account the objective laws of
personality development, which serves as a necessary and universal form of this development. The goal of the educational process is that each person is formed as a person interacting with the people around him. This requires not only his mental development, improvement of creative capabilities, the ability to think independently, update and expand his knowledge, but also the development of a way of thinking,
views, feelings, readiness to participate in joint economic, social and cultural activities with other people. Consequently, an important place in education should be given
to the task of developing a person’s ability to be a subject of social relations, which is
possible only in conditions of education in a group (team).
The development of a person’s personal sphere requires society to constantly
and consciously improve the system of public education. Such a practice is unthinkable without relying on scientific, theoretical and psychological knowledge of the laws
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of human development in the process of his ontogenesis, since without this there is a
danger of manipulative influence on the development process, distortion of his true
human nature. In this regard, it is necessary to structure the process of education in a
group in such a way that it involves active self-education through the performance of
responsible, socially expedient actions.
The process of including a person in the system of collective relations is complex, ambiguous and often contradictory. The position of an individual in the system
of group relations depends most significantly on their individual social experience. It
is experience that determines the nature of judgments, system of value orientations,
and line of behavior. At the same time, how the relationship between the individual
and the group (collective) will develop depends not only on the qualities of the individual himself, but also on the characteristics of collective psychology. The most favorable educational relations develop where the team has already reached a high level
of development, where it represents a force based on traditions, public opinion, and
the authority of self-government.
Each person, with more or less energy, strives for self-affirmation in the team,
to take a favorable position in it. However, subjective and objective reasons may hinder person in this endeavor. Not everyone, due to their natural capabilities, is able to
achieve visible success and critically comprehend the differences in value orientations with the team. This is especially difficult at an early age, which is explained by
the monotony of activities and the narrow range of social roles that schoolchildren
can play in a team. No less significant is the lack of content and organizational forms
of communication between members of the school team, the lack of culture of perception of each other, the inability to see in a friend something interesting and valuable that deserves attention.
Special scientific research has made it possible to identify the three most common models of relations between the individual and the team, which form one or an-
other direction of education in the group:
- conformism — the individual naturally and voluntarily submits to the de-
mands of the collective;
- harmony — optimally balanced relationships have developed between the in-
dividual and the team;
- nonconformism — the team submitted to the demands of the individual.
Managing the educational effect of a group (team) means adjusting its functioning, using it as an educational tool, taking into account the stage of its development at which it is located. At the same time, the process of management in pedagogy
itself is considered as two interconnected and interdependent processes. On the one
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