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hand, it involves the study of the psychological characteristics of the group and its
members, and on the other hand, it involves the organization of influences adequate
to its state, with the goal of improving the team itself and optimizing its influence on
each student. In addition, in the practice of managing the educational effect of a
group, it is necessary to follow a number of pedagogical rules. Let's consider the es-
sence of the most important of them.
- A reasonable combination of pedagogical leadership with the natural desire of
team members for independence, the desire to show their initiative and independence.
- The presence of a system of priority personal values, formed among group
members in the process of collective educational influence.
- Changing the pedagogical tactics of managing the educational effect of the
team as it gradually develops.
- Direction of the pedagogical control system to an increasingly higher level of
development of the group (team) and each of its members.
- Mandatory consideration of the unique educational effect of a three-level system of interpersonal relationships in a group: direct dependence (like or antipathy,
difficulty or ease, etc.), the totality of interpersonal relationships (relationships between participants in joint activities) and attitudes towards the subject of joint activity
(motives, goals and social meaning of joint activity).
The presented approach to presenting the problem of education in a group
(team) allows us to evaluate it as quite effective and not contrary to the interests of a
particular individual. However, each person can have value guidelines that are not
manifested in their relationships with their group comrades. The promising development of theoretical and applied problems of personality-oriented education is aimed
at anticipating this situation.
Features of personality-oriented education
Modern scientific developments in the theory and practice of personalitycentered education are based on the principle of a personal (person-centered) approach to the student as a self-conscious, responsible subject of their own development and as a subject of educational interaction. Its conceptual ideas were developed
in the 60s of the 20th century by representatives of foreign humanistic psychology
C. Rogers, A. Maslow, V. Frankl and others, who argued that full-fledged education
is possible only if the school serves as a laboratory for the discovery the unique “I” of
each child.
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In domestic pedagogy, the idea of a personal approach has been developed
since the 80s of the 20th century by K.A. Abulkhanova, I.S. Kon, A.V. Petrovsky and
others in connection with the interpretation of education as a subject-subject process.
By the beginning of the 21st century, as a result of new developments carried out by
teachers-researchers E.V. Bondarevskaya, V.P. Davydov, V.V. Serikov and others,
the conceptual provisions of the theory of personality-oriented education in educational institutions of various levels were formed. Despite some differences in the approaches of scientists to the interpretation of their content, it seems possible to identify common methodological positions in them. The most significant of them include
the following provisions:
1. At the center of each concept is a person as a unique socio-biological being,
possessing a unique system of individual psychological characteristics, moral and
ethical values and guidelines. This is explained by the fact that in modern Russian society, ideas about the individual are changing, which, in addition to social qualities, is
endowed with various subjective properties that characterize its autonomy, independence, ability to choose, reflection, self-regulation, etc.
2. Researchers of pedagogical problems of personality-oriented education see
one of the main conditions for its implementation as a change in the structure of education — its transfer from the sphere of subject-object relations to the sphere of subject-subject. As a result, education is considered not as a “pedagogical influence” on
the personality of the person being educated, but as a kind of “pedagogical interaction” with it.
3. In the content of education, the authors propose to move from the formation
of an individual with the qualities set by society to the creation of conditions for his
self-actualization and subsequent disclosure (realization) of his own personal potential (psychological capabilities, spiritual and moral value orientations, etc.).
4. Self-education is recognized as the leading type of personality-oriented education. It is believed that it is the most effective in the new educational environment
being formed. In this case, education fulfills society’s need for specialists who can
independently acquire the necessary knowledge and adapt to the changing economic,
social and public conditions of the state.
A generalization of the presented methodological positions allows us to present
personality-oriented education as an activity aimed at creating an educational system
(educational environment) that makes it possible to fully realize the personal potential
of the person being educated in order to achieve value (life) guidelines in the interests
of his educational training and professional activities. This approach gives education
a certain originality — it presupposes a subject-subject relationship between educa-
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tors and students, and also recognizes the priority of the personal values of the latter
in the educational activities of the teacher.
It is important to take into account that in personality-oriented education, both
its general pedagogical principles and specific ones arising from the characteristics of
its organization and implementation are taken into account:
- ensuring the unity and complexity of the processes of training, education and
personal self-improvement (development);
- compliance of the goals, objectives, content and technology of personalityoriented education with the specifics of educational, professional and other types of
activities of its subjects and objects;
- the content and technology of education are determined by the value orientations and motivation of those being educated for future professional activities, as well
as by the general and pedagogical culture of educators;
- consistency, systematicity and continuity of mastering the humanities
knowledge brought up by the system, as well as the skills of personal selfimprovement.
It should be noted that the personal approach is the basic value orientation of a
modern teacher. It involves helping the student in realizing themself as an individual,
in identifying and revealing their capabilities, developing self-awareness, in implementing personally significant and socially acceptable self-determination, selfrealization and self-affirmation. In collective education, it means recognition of the
priority of the individual over the team, the creation of humanistic relationships in it,
thanks to which students realize themselves as individuals and learn to see individuals in other people. The team must act as a guarantor of the realization of the capabilities of each person. The uniqueness of the individual enriches the team and its other
members if the content and forms of organization of life activities are diverse and
correspond to their age characteristics and interests. And this largely depends on the
teacher’s accurate and scientifically based determination of his place and pedagogical
functions.
Place and pedagogical functions of the teacher
The profession of an educator has been known since antiquity, although at that
time teachers solved not so much the problems of education as teaching. In the Middle Ages and in modern times, educational functions in educational institutions were
assigned to special officials — class guards, class ladies, etc. The wealthy segments
of the population invited home educators — tutors — into their families. In the mod-
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ern system of public education, special positions have been approved that implement
educational functions — class teachers, curators of educational groups, etc. Due to
the fact that in the pedagogical process teaching and upbringing are closely interconnected, the functions of education are also carried out by all other teachers (kindergarten teachers, school teachers, masters of industrial training, teachers of vocational
education institutions). Parents, as well as close relatives, act as educators for their
children.
In modern pedagogical literature, a teacher in the most general form is understood as a person who carries out pedagogical (educational) interaction, who takes
responsibility for the living conditions and development of the personality of another
person. This concept combines a professional role and a civil personal position, assumed by one person and implemented in relation to and in the interests of another
person or team (group).
The educator carries out conscious, systematic activities that encourage the individual to self-education and the formation of certain properties and qualities of the
individual (i.e., he carries out education in the narrow sense of the word). At the same
time, the tasks of the educator are to organize, regulate and correct a wide range of
external social influences on students (education in the broad sense).
Due to the dynamic features of the education process, the role of the educator
is not the same in relations with the student at different stages of the development of
his personality. “Inequality” in the experience and knowledge of the teacher and the
pupil often gave grounds for understanding the teacher as a relay of social experience. The pupil was regarded mainly as perceiving him. For many years, this view
consolidated the paradigm of authoritarian pedagogy (considering education as a onesided subject-object influence).
In the humanistic (personally-oriented) interpretation of the pedagogical process, the teacher acts as one of the subjects of educational interaction (along with the
student), organizing the joint activities of the students, entering into relationships of
cooperation and co-creation with them in order to create conditions for the selfrealization of the individual. In this regard, in its activities it implements two main
functions.
Firstly, it ensures that the pupil fully passes through the main stages of his ontogenesis — childhood, adolescence, juvenile — as self-valuable, unique periods of
personal development.
Secondly, it prepares for independent adult life, the performance of family, civil and other functions, forms readiness for moral self-determination, continuous edu-
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cation in the name of creative social self-realization, the manifestation of original
personality traits, individual inclinations and abilities.
In the professional preparedness of a teacher, mastering the following types
of activities is of particular importance:
- design (setting goals and objectives of education, planning the education pro-
cess);
- prognostic (prediction of the results of educational activities);
- gnostic (ability to learn, self-educate);
- diagnostic (analysis of the state of education);
- organizational (providing conditions for education);
- communicative (communication with students and other participants in the
educational process).
Professional preparedness also presupposes the ability to self-determinate in
the goals and means of education, mastery of methods of pedagogical work and the
constant improvement of pedagogical skills, the development of pedagogical reflection.
As a result of the interpenetration of various social, professional and individual
psychological personality traits, the pedagogical style and position of the educator is
formed. They are associated with the social structure, folk traditions, and the political
structure of the state, but to a large extent they also depend on the temperament, individual fate of the teacher (the quality of family life, fairness in assessing his work, the
nature of interpersonal relationships) and the formed pedagogical culture. In this regard, in any educational system there really is a variety of educational positions: from
an arrogant mentoring position, alienated from the student’s personality, to a patient,
explanatory, optimistic, interested in the person position of cooperation with the
student.
The main components of a teacher’s pedagogical success lie in his high professionalism and moral authority, which presuppose the ability to get into contact with
students, knowledge of their individual and age characteristics, respect for human
dignity, and the ability to creatively resolve difficult situations in the life of the individual and the team. At the same time, the need for moral, civil and professional selfdetermination of the educator follows from the very essence of the education process,
which presupposes an understanding of one’s own social tasks, civic goals, as well as
knowledge of the pupils, oneself, and one’s own characteristics.
No less significant among the components of pedagogical success is the teacher’s self-determination, which is largely based on the level of their pedagogical reflection. In this regard, its most significant components are:
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- awareness by the teacher of the true motives of his professional activity
(whether it is performed in the interests of the student, his own prestige, for the sake
of management, in pursuance of instructions, etc.);
- the ability to distinguish one’s own difficulties and problems from the diffi-
culties and problems of pupils (if this skill is not there, pupils often find themselves
responsible for the teacher’s pedagogical mistakes);
- the ability to put oneself in the place of another, to see what is happening
through the eyes of the student;
- the ability to evaluate one’s own actions to adjust professional self-esteem.
Along with the listed conditions for effective education, it is very important for
the teacher to have a solid knowledge and guidance in their professional activities of
the relevant principles of its optimal organization and rational implementation.
Principles of education
In modern domestic pedagogy, the problem of educational principles also does
not have a clear solution. In textbooks on pedagogy of the second half of the 20th century, the principles of education and the principles of teaching were considered separately. Theorists have traditionally attributed to the principles of education (in various
combinations) its class character, party affiliation, the connection between education
and life, the unity of consciousness and behavior of pupils, education at work, education in a team and through a team, etc. This situation is explained by the theoretical
lack of development of the problem, various teachers’ understanding of the essence
of education, the relationship between education and training, as well as ideological
and opportunistic considerations.
At the same time, understanding education as an integral part of the development and socialization of a person, as the interaction between educator and student
allows us to identify a number of principles of education that can be considered as
principles of education, the organization of a person’s social experience, and individ-
ual assistance to those being educated. In this case, the understanding of education as
the creation of conditions for human development determines the principles of natural
conformity and cultural conformity. From the approach to education as the purposeful development of the individual, the principle of orientation of education towards
the development of the individual follows. The connection between upbringing and
other factors of human development is reflected in the principle of complementarity.
The main ideas of the principle of natural conformity of education originated in
ancient society (Democritus, Plato, Aristotle). They were developed more deeply by
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Ya.A. Komenius, and occupied an important place in the pedagogical systems of
J.J. Rousseau, I.G. Pestalozzi, F.A. Disterweg. With different interpretations of the
very concept of nature, they were united by the approach to man as part of it and the
affirmation of the need for their upbringing in accordance with the objective laws of
human development in the surrounding world. The modern interpretation of the principle proceeds from the fact that education should be based on a scientific understanding of natural and social processes, consistent with the general laws of development of nature and man, and form responsibility for the evolution of the surrounding
world and themself. That is why the development of a person and their needs must be
taken beyond the boundaries of their own “I” and the nearest society, helping to understand the global problems of humanity, to feel a sense of belonging to nature and
society, responsibility for their condition and development.
The principle of cultural conformity in world pedagogy was formulated by
F.A. Disterweg based on the ideas of J. Locke and C.A. Helvetius. He argued that in
education it is necessary to take into account the conditions of the place and time in
which a person was born and lives, that is, all modern culture in the broad sense of
the word and the specific country that is his homeland. K.D. Ushinsky and L.N. Tol-
stoy developed this idea with the concept of “national education.” P.F. Kapterev con-
sidered the relationship between education, social conditions and culture as the totality of religion, life and morality of the people. The modern understanding of the principle of cultural conformity suggests that education should be based on universal human values and built taking into account the characteristics of ethnic and regional
cultures. It is believed that the goals, content and methods of education are culturally
appropriate if they take into account the historically developed traditions and style of
socialization in a particular society.
The principle of orientation (sometimes centering) of education on the development of the individual is based on the idea, which originated in ancient society and
was embodied in the works of many thinkers, that the task of education is human development. In the 20th century, this idea was developed by J. Dewey, K. Rogers,
A. Maslow and others, who view education as creating opportunities for selfrealization and self-actualization of the individual. Consequently, this principle is
based on the recognition of the priority of the individual in relation to society, the
state, social institutions, groups and collectives. He assumes that this position should
become the basis of the philosophy of education, the ideology of society in the field
of education, the central value orientation of both educators and students. Limiting
the priority of an individual is possible only if it is necessary to ensure the rights of
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other individuals. In this approach, the process of education, institutions of education
and community of pupils are considered only as a means of personal development.
The principle of complementarity education was formulated by the physicist
N. Bohr in 1927 and began to be applied in various fields of cognition as a methodological principle. In modern pedagogy, it was proposed to be used by V.D. Semenov,
who considered education as one of the factors of human development, complementing natural, social and cultural influences. This approach makes it possible to interpret education itself as a set of complementary processes of family (private), religious
(confessional) and public (social) education, which leads to the rejection of schoolcentrism and statism (French etat — state). In the first case, this leads to an understanding of the modern school as one of many educational institutions that have lost
their monopoly in education, but have retained priority in systematic education. Rejecting statism means recognizing that in civil society education is carried out not only by the state, but also by society through the family, public and other organizations.
The presented theoretical provisions, revealing the essence and content of education, create conditions for considering its other important component — the organizational and pedagogical foundations.
9.2. ORGANIZATIONAL AND PEDAGOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION
The organizational and pedagogical foundations of education include a set of
various scientific, theoretical and applied elements, the system-forming functions of
which are assigned to the educational system.
The educational system as a socio-pedagogical phenomenon
In modern pedagogical literature, the educational system is considered as a
complex of social and pedagogical phenomena (educational goals, people who realize
them in the process of purposeful pedagogical activity, relationships that arise between its participants), the mastered environment and management activities that ensure the solution of the educational tasks facing it. It is created to achieve pedagogical
goals and ensure the development of the personal sphere of people (education). This
is where it differs from the concept of “system of educational work,” which is includ-
ed in the educational system as a subsystem — an activity block. That is why the desire of teachers to achieve the best educational results with the help of only a set of
certain activities in practice leads either to limiting goals by highlighting the leading
directions in educational work (for example, aesthetic, labor and other types of edu-
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cation), or to choosing which one as the main educational means — one effective
pedagogical technique (for example, “persuasion”, “stimulation”, “self-government”,
etc.). As a result, the use of the sum of pedagogical means of educational work outside the educational system does not always provide the desired results, although
within its framework they can be used quite successfully.
The educational systems currently functioning are quite diverse. Among
them, the traditional educational systems of mass schools, rural and small schools
(including family-type ones) stand out first of all. The educational systems of specialized educational institutions with in-depth study of individual disciplines (gymnasiums, colleges, lyceums, etc.), having much in common with the systems of mass
schools, differ from them in their goals, the main of which are the education of children with interests established in a certain field of science, as well as the development
of their corresponding creative abilities. Adjacent to them are the educational systems
of school complexes, where the combination of educational work with creativity,
computerization of education with its humanization, vocational training with leisure
activities based on interests, etc. are most clearly expressed. Special types of educational systems are formed in zones of military conflicts, natural and social disasters,
where people have experienced strong emotional shocks, which leads to an increase
in the rehabilitation function in the educational activities of teachers. The educational
systems of vocational education institutions at various levels are focused on the formation of personal properties and qualities of a specialist in the relevant field of professional activity (pedagogical, economic, medical, etc.).
Based on the type of organization, educational systems are traditionally divided into two large groups: authoritarian and humanistic.
Authoritarian educational systems are based on concepts that provide for the
strict subordination of the student to the will of the educator. So, for example, in the
well-known system of “educating a gentleman” by J. Locke, it dominates until the
child has formed an independent will. In the theory of I.F. Herbart, the “control” sec-
tion is built on the same approach, where ways and means of suppressing the socalled “wild playfulness” of the child are interpreted. In the 20th century, the ideas of
authoritarian education became widespread in countries with fascist regimes, the cult
of personality and the “chosenness” of certain races and peoples.
At the same time, educational systems of the humanistic type are distinguished
by being based on a humanistically oriented concept of education, the predominance
of positive value orientations among participants in the educational process and the
alienation of negative phenomena, an atmosphere of mutual trust, goodwill and mutual assistance, providing each person with a feeling of spiritual comfort, etc. They
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are characterized by freedom of choice, voluntary activity, mutual tolerance, personal
responsibility of students, teachers, parents. Within the framework of such systems,
mutually approved norms of behavior and forms of organizing life activities are developed. In addition, they provide so-called “free development zones” that encourage
participants to creative development.
Within each of the presented systems, systems of family, school and professional education are distinguished, as well as educational systems of a microdistrict,
village, city, region, society and even the state. A certain hierarchical relationship develops between them. Thus, if there is an educational system in the microdistrict, the
educational systems of educational institutions are organically included in its structure. Each of the educational systems has features that are common to systems at the
same level, special features that are characteristic of some systems, and individual
features that reflect the creative style of their creators.
Any educational system is a developing phenomenon. It goes through the stages of formation, functioning in an optimal mode, development or, if necessary, renewal.
The formation of modern (person-centered) educational systems begins
with the development of its initial concept and familiarization of students, teachers
and parents with its basic ideas (for example, freedom of choice, voluntary activity,
mutual tolerance, personal responsibility, etc.). At the functioning stage, norms of
behavior and forms of organizing the life activities of students and educators are implemented. At this time, an increasing number of teachers and students are involved
in the process of managing the system.
The development of the educational system is a pedagogically controlled
process. By determining the main characteristics of the system during its formation,
teachers then realize that they are only one of the forces acting in it. With the increasing importance of the team, the choice of prospects for the further development of the
educational system is carried out jointly by teachers and students. At the same time,
the main criterion for the pedagogical feasibility of the functioning of the educational
system is the well-being of students, the direction and level of their personal formation and development.
Renewal processes are associated with changes primarily in the block of goals,
followed by reform of structure, activities and relationships, the creation of new value
orientations and moral norms. Experiencing the influence of both external environmental factors and internal self-regulatory processes, the educational system overcomes the emerging contradictions between value components cultivated by teachers
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