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Based on the theories discussed, several teaching concepts have been developed, in which the emphasis is on the activities of the lesson leader. In particular, in
line with the associative-reflexive theory, the concept of problem-based learning has
been developed, which is a set of interrelated methods and means that provide opportunities for the creative participation of students in the process of acquiring new
knowledge, the formation of creative thinking and cognitive interests of the individual based on finding a solution to a theoretical or practical problem (problem).
At the end of the 80s of the 20th century, a team of military educators developed and implemented the concept of problem-based learning in educational institutions. Among its advantages are the preservation and harmonious combination of the
strengths of the associative-reflex theory, the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions, the concept of problem-based learning, as well as the definition of interrelated requirements for both the activities of students and the activities of teachers. In
terms of content, it is based on two principles in accordance with which the educational process is organized. Firstly, this is the principle of active development of the
individual in the learning process, and secondly, the principle of problem-solving. As
the analysis shows, the concept under consideration has found wide application in the
educational process of modern domestic schools at various levels.
In the 60s of the last century, the development of the concept of programmed
learning began. According to its terms, the acquisition of new knowledge is carried
out with the help of a teaching device (programmed textbook, special teaching machine or computer). The essence of the concept lies in the division of educational ma-
terial into certain interrelated “doses” and their sequential presentation to students.
Currently, computer training technologies are being actively developed on its basis.
In modern conditions, other teaching concepts are being actively developed.
Among them, the most prominent are the so-called ultra-pedagogical ones: suggestionopedia (cybernetic-suggestopedia) — teaching by means of suggestion; hypnopedia — learning in a state of hypnotic sleep; pharmacopedia — training using pharmaceuticals, etc. Their use, in particular in the study of foreign languages and some special disciplines, has shown good results, but has not yet received sufficient distribution.
To consistently improve the educational process, it is not enough to understand
only domestic theories and concepts of teaching. The knowledge of the basic principles of the theoretical development of this problem in foreign countries is very important for its solving.
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Foreign learning theories
Special pedagogical literature notes that most modern foreign teaching theories
implement the ideas of formal and material education that have undergone long-term
testing in pedagogical practice.
The theory of formal education was developed in the 17th century by
J. Locke. In the 18th–19th centuries, its main provisions were concretized and consistently developed in the works of G. Pestalozzi, I. Kant and I. Herbart. Proponents of
this theory adhere to the philosophy of rationalism and proceed from the fact that the
only source of knowledge is the mind and that it is generated only by the subject of
learning themself, by the independence of their mind. As a result, they see the most
important task of education not so much in students’ mastery of factual knowledge,
but in the development of their mind, i.e., abilities for analysis, synthesis, logical
thinking, etc. Based on this, the study of the ancient (Latin and Greek) and foreign
languages, as well as mathematics is the best way of learning.
The presented approach is called the “classical” direction in education and is
still used in many educational institutions. On their basis, in particular, the educational process is organized in grammar schools in England, which provide predominantly
a humanitarian education. However, back in the 19th century, the English naturalist
T. Huxley, pointing out the inconsistency of the theory of formal education, noted
that its supporters do not propose to give children solid knowledge, but only to perform more or less useful exercises of “mental gymnastics.”
At the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, the theory of mate-
rial education was developed. It owes its origin to the fact that the rapid development of industry raised the question of the need to train people with thorough natural
science and practical training. Its supporters proceeded from the theoretical positions
of the philosophy of empiricism. The empiricist idealists and, in particular, the English philosopher G. Spencer argued that knowledge cannot go beyond the limits of
direct human experience. In their opinion, only human experience is a reliable source
of knowledge. From this, a pedagogical conclusion was made that students need to be
equipped primarily with natural science knowledge. As a criterion for selecting edu-
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cational material, they proposed an indicator of its utilitarian (Latin utilitas — benefit, benefit) suitability for life and practical activities of students in the future19.
The basic ideas of the theory of pragmatic (Greek pragma — deed, action)
education became widespread in foreign and especially American pedagogy in the
first third of the 20th century. On their basis, the famous American idealist philosopher J. Dewey tried to create his own concept of school education, in which he persistently introduced into pedagogy the idea of the need to develop the practical experience of children, equipping them with applied skills in various types of activities. In
this regard, he represented learning as the organization of students’ activities to solve
practical problems taken from everyday life. In addition, the author of the theory denied the need to define clear content of training and individual academic subjects, did
not recognize the importance of scientific education, but reduced them only to narrow
ones and based on the prevailing predominantly pragmatic, mercantile interests of the
students.
The structuralist theory of learning, implemented in many countries of
Western Europe, goes back to the ideas of Pythagoras, who considered harmony one
of the fundamental principles of everything that exists and extended this idea to humans. In their modern form, structuralist ideas in pedagogy were developed by the
representative of Gestalt psychology, J. Piaget and his followers. The theory is based
on the category of experience that has the properties of structured integrity. Proponents of the theory believe that the learning process begins with a relatively unstructured and formless introduction to what the learner finds important and valuable.
Then the previously accumulated experience is restructured. This may be followed
(but not necessarily) by a stage of trial and error, a random search. The formation of
new knowledge, skills and abilities is carried out as a result of insight and gradually
becomes more structured, reaching the stage of understanding or solving a learning
task or problem.
The foundations of the apperceptive theory of learning are laid in the works
of J. Locke, developed by I. Herbart and experimentally tested by J. Piaget. From
their point of view, the educational process is based on the association of ideas and
elements of the students’ experience. Modern proponents of the theory believe that
the thinking process determines the necessary distribution of knowledge between
19
The basic principles of the theory of material education formed the basis of the so-called real direction in the
educational system of pre-revolutionary Russia, and therefore in real gymnasiums and colleges the main attention was
focused on the study of natural sciences and applied disciplines.
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consciousness and subconscious through apperception (the process of perception).
New knowledge enters into an associative connection with existing knowledge and
forms their conceptual matrix (apperceptive mass). The teaching technology, which
implements the theoretical developments of the apperceptive theory of learning, in
this case assumes both the active intellectual leadership of the teacher and the spontaneous but creative activity of students.
In many educational institutions in the United States, the behaviorist theory of
learning, developed in its most developed form by B. Skinner, is widely used. It especially emphasizes only the possibility and necessity of organizing and managing
human educational activities with the help of a scientifically based and thoughtful
pedagogical process. Moreover, such management, for which, according to supporters of the theory, there is no alternative, involves creating conditions for the successful acquisition of knowledge, as well as the formation of skills and abilities. The main
ideas of the theory are fully implemented in the modern concept of programmed
learning, which is determined by the goals of the pedagogical process.
The authors of the cognitive theory of learning, based on the conceptual pro-
visions of the apperceptive theory, assume, first of all, the formation of students’ in-
terest in the learning process and only then provide material for preliminary assimilation of the conditions of the educational task (problem). Next comes the stage of formulating a hypothesis, selecting the ideas (concepts) necessary for the solution, and
checking the correctness of these ideas. Learning leads to intellectual development.
The pedagogical situation models the sequence of the mental act as such. According
to J. Piaget, in this case the content of the educational process provides material that
is feasible for students, on which they train and develop their own mental abilities.
The presented main foreign learning theories are not final. Depending on the
specific methodological positions of researchers in pedagogical theory and practice,
established state and national educational traditions and other factors in different
countries, their list may expand. In this regard, it should be noted the presence of theories formed on the ideas of humanistic pedagogy, existentialist, interactive, sociodramatic and other approaches.
The considered and some other theories and concepts of training have their
own specific features, advantages and disadvantages. However, their practical application largely depends on the specific conditions of educational and cognitive activity. All this forms in each case the specific content of the educational process and determines its particular content. There is no need to explore fundamental differences,
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for example, in the education of children in a preschool educational institution and in
a secondary school, students in a school of secondary and higher vocational education, or certified specialists during their professional retraining or advanced training.
This position is accepted without proof. However, in each specific case, the combination of goals, patterns, principles and other elements of the educational (didactic) system acquires a unique sound and significantly affects the indicators of the learning
process.
Thus, the described characteristics of learning as a pedagogical process allow
us to conclude that in modern domestic schools of various educational levels it represents a fairly developed system of theoretical and applied knowledge. This creates the
necessary conditions for the successful achievement of the main educational goal —
the upbringing and training of the younger generation and other citizens of the Russian Federation in the interests of the individual, society and the state.
Questions and tasks for self-testing of knowledge
1. Independently formulate the essence and determine what is common and
what is the difference between the concepts of “learning”, “teaching” and “doctrine”.
2. What is the dual nature and what is the content of the main learning objec-
tives?
3. Determine the sphere of interaction or opposition of the main functions and
factors of learning in the conditions of a modern domestic school of various educational levels.
4. Identify the mechanism of influence of learning patterns on the formation of
the essence, content and requirements for the educational process of learning principles.
5. Assess the feasibility and features of the application of basic domestic and
foreign learning theories during educational training in your specialty.
Additional literature
1. Бороздина, Г.В. Психология и педагогика : учебник для бакалавров /
Г.В. Бороздина. — 2-е изд., испр. и доп. — Москва : Юрайт, 2016. — 477 с.
2. Психология и педагогика: в 2 ч. Ч 2: Педагогика : учебник для академического бакалавриата / под общей редакцией В.А. Сластенина, В.П. Каширина. — Москва : Юрайт, 2016. — 374 с.
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CHAPTER 8
ORGANIZATIONAL AND PEDAGOGICAL COMPONENTS
OF THE LEARNING PROCESS
Types and forms of organizing educational activities. Organizational training
system. Types of training. Concept and classification of forms of training. General
characteristics of the main forms of education. Features of distance learning.
Methods, techniques and means of managing educational and cognitive ac-
tivities. Concept and classification of teaching methods. Contents of teaching meth-
ods. Techniques and teaching aids. Diagnostics of learning. Assessment of
knowledge, skills and abilities.
It is advisable to begin considering the problem of organizational and pedagogical components of the educational process with an understanding of the dialectical
connection and correlation of all its elements. Each of them implements a teaching
function, but has its own specifics and purpose. This is especially clearly seen in the
characteristics of the types and forms of organization of educational activities. It is in
them that the system-forming signs of the integrity of the educational process of an
educational institution of any level are manifested.
8.1. TYPES AND GENERAL FORMS
OF ORGANIZING EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES
In order for the organization of the educational process to be effective, it must
first of all be carried out on the basis of a carefully thought-out combination of all its
components. This problem is solved by building an appropriate organizational training system.
Organizational training system
The organizational system of education is an ordered set of interrelated and interdependent types, forms and methods of planning, implementation and control of
the educational process, aimed at maintaining its functional state within the required
limits. Its typical features are:
- scientifically based planning of the learning process;
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- unity and interpenetration of theoretical and practical training of students;
- high level and dynamism of studying educational material;
- maximum activity and sufficient independence of learning;
- combination of collective (group) and individual (independent) work of stu-
dents;
- saturation of the educational process with technical teaching aids;
- integration of various educational subjects.
Special studies show that the organizational system functions successfully only
when it clearly corresponds to the goals, objectives and content of training, and includes planning, control and adjustment of the educational process. At the same time,
it achieves its greatest effectiveness when it is built taking into account the principles
of organizing the educational process — fundamental provisions that take into ac-
count the patterns of development of the educational team and the processes of managing the educational activities of teachers and students, the features of pedagogical
interaction between them. They are the result of thoughtful adherence to the principles of learning, the effective application of its forms and methods in the relevant
types of educational activities. They usually include the following content.
The principle of self-organization, which determines the patterns of formation and improvement of the organization of educational activities of students and
educational staff as independently functioning systems that have their own specifics
and specific tasks, the achievement of which depends on the teachers and students
themselves.
The principle of development, which assumes the constant variability of the
educational process, its continuous improvement from the initially implemented organizational forms to the heights of effective and productive interaction between
teachers and students.
The principle of amateur performance, orienting teachers and students to the
manifestation of initiative and creativity both in the organization of the pedagogical
process and in the formation and improvement of knowledge, skills and abilities,
achieving maximum understanding, unity and cohesion in joint didactic interaction.
The principle of role participation, which requires teachers and students to
perform certain functions assigned to them by the state, society and educational au-
thorities. The teacher plays the role of organizer and leader of students’ educational
activities, responsible for the effectiveness of their personal development and the
productivity of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities. Students, in turn, perform
roles that are dictated by the need to rely on their experience and professional skills.
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The principle of responsibility, which requires participants in the educational
process not only to fulfill the duties assigned to them, but also to control their actions,
actions, performance results, as well as accountability for the knowledge given or received, the skills and abilities being developed.
The principle of collectivism, which assumes that teachers and students interact as a well-functioning, effective system, all elements of which strive to promote
each other, are ready to jointly overcome any difficulties encountered in learning, and
show mutual restraint and patience in the interests of achieving their educational
goals.
The principle of psychological support, which means that the educational
process can only be productive when psychological prerequisites and a high moral
climate are created and effectively manifested, promoting joint activity and the highquality formation of knowledge, skills and abilities.
All of the listed principles of organizing educational activities complement
each other, and in the totality of their manifestations act as a guarantee of achieving
its socially significant goals. Their influence is visible in all components of the educational process, including types of training.
Types of training
It should be noted that the problem of types of training has not yet been sufficiently reflected in modern pedagogical literature. At the same time, a number of authors share the approach according to which they mean a specific organization of the
educational process, revealing an approach to transferring a system of knowledge,
skills and abilities to students. In this case, in the pedagogical literature they are combined into two relatively independent groups — explanatory-illustrative and problembased learning.
The explanatory and illustrative type of teaching is the main type of teaching in domestic schools of various educational levels. It involves the delivery of educational information followed by its explanation in combination with a visual presentation of the material being studied. The main tools of such learning are listening, un-
derstanding (perception) and memorization. In addition, it is based on the students’
existing experience (sensual and logical, reasoning experience), and also includes the
creation of new experience. This approach to organizing the educational process is
sometimes also called traditional.
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To understand educational material presented in this way means to reproduce
in the mind (in speech, in practice) the situation being presented, to carry out those
cognitive operations (comparison, analysis, modeling, etc.) without which explanation does not exist. At the same time, it is important that the student is aware of why
these particular operations are performed in a given sequence, and also that the reproduction (verbal or practical) is not stereotyped, associated only with the same linguistic or practical form.
Different levels of understanding differ in the breadth of transfer of acquired
knowledge into new (for students) learning situations. An explanation, for example,
can start from facts and lead to generalizations (laws, principles) based on an inductive approach to the presentation of educational material. Or, on the contrary, it can,
on the basis of generalization, reveal the essence of facts, sensory data, representing a
deductive explanation. However, inductive or deductive explanations are rarely found
in their pure form; they are usually combined.
There are also analytical and synthetic ways of explanation and illustration.
With the first, teachers proceed from what they need to achieve in the training session, and with the second, from a description of the situation. Most often there is a
combination of these paths. At the same time, modern didactics increasingly emphasizes the advantages of the so-called analysis through synthesis, that is, analysis of
educational material from the point of view of what needs to be achieved.
The explanatory and illustrative type of teaching has a number of important
advantages. It is believed that it saves time, saves the energy of teachers and students,
facilitates the understanding of complex knowledge, and provides fairly effective
management of the educational process. At the same time, it is noted that in this case,
students are presented with “ready-made knowledge,” which frees them from the
need to think independently and productively. This drawback is eliminated by relying
on the provisions of problem-based learning.
Problem-based learning is based on the idea of independent formation of the
necessary knowledge, skills and abilities in the process of solving educational and
cognitive tasks (problems), which forms and develops creative thinking and cognitive
activity of students. This is its main difference from the traditional explanatory and
illustrative one.
The organization of problem-based learning is based on a personal-activity approach to the organization of the learning process, the priority of the search educational and cognitive activity of students, i.e., their discovery, under the guidance of a
teacher, of the conclusions of science, methods of action, invention of new objects or
ways of applying knowledge to practice. However, in this case, it is important to take
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into account that in explanatory and illustrative teaching, elements of students’ search
activity are also not excluded, especially when studying subjects of the natural and
mathematical cycle, the very content of which involves problem solving, observation
and generalization. At the same time, the frontal presentation and transmission by the
teacher of ready-made conclusions of science dominates, especially in the subjects of
the humanities cycle.
It should be taken into account that problem-based learning presupposes a
different structure of the educational lesson from the traditional one, consisting of
three components:
- updating basic knowledge and methods of action;
- identifying and mastering new concepts;
- application of open knowledge in order to develop skills in a specific area of
educational or professional activity.
It is believed that it is precisely this structure of the educational lesson that ensures the implementation of the educational (cognitive), developmental and nurturing
functions of training. At the same time, it is important to take into account that problem-based learning does not absorb the entire educational process — not every educational material contains problematic knowledge and not every problematic
knowledge can be presented in the form of a cognitive task or contradictory judgment. That is why, when posing new cognitive (educational) problems, it is imperative to be guided by the principle of expediency.
The most important condition for realizing the possibilities of this type of education was the differentiation of its content by varying the structure of knowledge, the
emergence of variable and alternative programs and textbooks for students of different levels of development. As a result, in recent years, teachers have used content
modeling, the introduction of simulation games, the use of flexible teaching technologies, the transition from a mass-reproductive to an individual-creative approach in
organizing the learning process, and other domestic and foreign didactic developments.
The benefits of problem-based learning are well known to educators. Independent acquisition of knowledge through one’s own creative activity, development
of productive thinking, and lasting and effective learning results allow one to form an
active person in a modern civilized society. However, the difficulties in achieving
them in pedagogical practice are associated with the still incomplete development of
its methodology and the complexity of preparing didactic material in the form of
problematic tasks, dialogue structures, as well as with the insufficient preparedness of
teachers themselves to realize the possibilities of problem-based learning.
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