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PART 2
PEDAGOGY
CHAPTER 6
SOCIO-CULTURAL PHENOMENON OF EDUCATION
Organizational and didactic foundations of education. Education as a univer-
sal human value. Contents of education. Features of adult education. Unity of education and self-education. The problem of lifelong education.
Characteristics of the Russian educational system. The main goal of educa-
tion. Contents and system of education. Certification, licensing and accreditation.
Management of the educational system. Monitoring the educational system. Assessing
the quality of education.
Education is a multidimensional phenomenon, considered in various fields of
scientific knowledge and human thought. Its scientific and theoretical problems are
studied by one of the branches of pedagogy — didactics. Currently theoretical and
applied problems in education and training are being developed. Its subject is learning as a means of human education, that is, the interaction of teaching and learning in
their unity, ensuring the assimilation of educational content by students organized by
the teacher. In this regard, it seems very important to consider, first of all, its organizational and didactic foundations.
6.1. ORGANIZATIONAL AND DIDACTIC FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION
In its most general form, education is a process of pedagogically organized socialization of the individual. At the same time, in the Law of the Russian Federation
“On Education in the Russian Federation” (2012), this provision is specified and interpreted, on the one hand, as “... a purposeful process of education and training car-
ried out in the interests of the individual, family, society and state...”, and on the other
hand, as “...a set of acquired knowledge, abilities, skills, values, operational experi-
ence and competence of a certain volume and complexity...” Consequently, consider-
ation of education in the form of a pedagogical system aimed at achieving certain
goals of the formation and development of the individual presupposes, first of all, its
analysis as a universal human value.
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Education as a universal human value
It should be emphasized that considering education as a unity of training and
upbringing ensures the cultural continuity of generations and a person’s readiness to
fulfill social and professional roles. In this case, the individual masters a systematized
set of moral and cultural values that correspond to their interests and social expectations. That is why education, in accordance with the interests and abilities of the individual, is one of the fundamental human rights. The social significance of culture and
moral guidelines for human activity and behavior make it a subject of interest not only for the individual, but also for the family, society and the state, which in this regard
actively influence education, supporting certain educational institutions, certain models of the educational process.
The peculiarity of the cultural and historical continuity of education is that
socially valuable personality traits are formed and developed not spontaneously, but
purposefully. The diversity of industries and areas of human activity in society, the
intellectual richness of modern skilled labor and the complexity of the cultural layers
being mastered require the state and society to appropriately organize an integrated
educational environment. In addition, in education, the direct existence of a person is
connected with the achieved level of culture of society, comprehended and ordered in
a system of moral categories and scientific concepts, socially approved patterns of
behavior, etc. In this regard, a developing personality is able to independently acquire
and rebuild experience, knowledge and skills of activity developed by society as a result of its evolutionary development.
Classification of types of educational practice is carried out according to the
criteria of knowledge, skills and abilities formed and developed in its system (general
or vocational education) and according to the levels of complexity of educational
programs (preschool, school, higher). That is why ideas about education and its theoretical understanding are historical and depend on a number of goal-setting ideas, including ethical, socio-philosophical and pedagogical. Consequently, education is an
important category of a number of sciences. This category is of fundamental importance for pedagogical science.
The main ideas of education correspond to historically and socially varying
ideals of the individual and the educated person. The goals of society and the goals of
students are related to each other — the less educated a person is, the more their
spontaneous goals diverge from state, public, social and pedagogical ones. Removing
this contradiction presupposes a gradual rapprochement and, ultimately, coincidence
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of the personal meanings of the activities of the parties involved in the educational
process.
It should be noted that in modern pedagogical science the attitude towards
knowledge, skills and abilities as the ultimate goals of education is being overcome.
In recent years, most scientists and practitioners consider them as its most important
means of ensuring the full development of the individual and its inclusion in socially
significant activities, which involves various opportunities for self-education in the
interests of a particular person.
In the education of subsequent years, it is expected to correlate the pedagogical
guidance of a person with their activity and independence in overcoming the gradually increasing, but still feasible difficulties of training and education. At the same
time, it is considered appropriate to form and maintain an individual’s educational
motives as one of the main tasks of teachers and psychologists. Underestimation of
motivational factors and manipulation of interpersonal relationships can not only
slow down the personal development and professional development of students in
educational institutions at various levels and harm their physical health, but also create a distorted picture of the world and cause an aversion to intellectual activity and
science. This, in turn, will negatively affect the behavioral attitudes of students and
harm the socio-economic development of society and the state.
Training and education are aspects of a single educational process. At the
same time, training involves the assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities that
allow the one who teaches and the one who is trained to speak the same language of
objective meanings of cultural elements. Education presupposes the assimilation of
moral values and norms of social and professional behavior, which, in turn, is impossible without training.
The motivation of students in the educational process is manifested in their interests and inclinations, which ensure attention to a certain level of education and
methods of acquiring it. At the same time, education develops in a person the necessary ability for self-criticism of thinking, reflective verification and self-correction.
These processes are of great importance for the formation of creative attitudes of the
emerging and developing personality, driving not only individual, but also general
cultural development, which is reflected in the content of education.
Contents of education
This or that level of education is a relative result of the learning process, expressed in the system of knowledge, skills and abilities formed in people, as well as
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attitudes towards natural phenomena and social life, which constitute its main content. At the same time, it also represents a process of change, development and consistent improvement of the existing system of knowledge and relationships of an individual throughout life, the absolute form of endless, continuous acquisition of new
knowledge, skills and abilities in connection with changing living conditions, accelerating scientific and technological progress. Consequently, the content of education
concentrates not only the sum of knowledge, but also the basis of a person’s psycho-
logical readiness for continuity in the accumulation of knowledge, its processing and
implementation in one’s life.
What is the specific content of education?
In the process of education, a person masters a system of knowledge about nature, society, thinking, and methods of activity that allow him to occupy a certain position among people, achieve specific goals and results in professional activities, interaction and communication with other people. At the same time, it equips a person
with a system of intellectual and practical skills and abilities that allow one to solve
any problems that arise in their life and professional activity. It is also equally important that in the process of education a person accumulates the experience of an
emotional-volitional relationship with the world around them, with other people,
which gives them the opportunity, on the one hand, to improve themself, develop
their psyche and inner psychological world, and on the other hand, to maintain mutually beneficial relationship with the surrounding social environment.
Finally, during the course of education, a person accumulates the experience of
creative activity necessary to solve diverse problems of life and activity. As a result,
the main content of education is aimed at the comprehensive development of the individual, i.e., the formation of a person who has broad and stable knowledge, skills
and abilities, who combines physical and mental labor in their activities, producing
material and spiritual benefits for society. Consequently, as a result of mastering the
content of education at a certain level, a person receives harmonious development in
spiritual and physical terms, combines high moral ideals with developed aesthetic
taste, and strives to satisfy diverse socially expedient material and spiritual needs.
At the same time, the huge amount of knowledge accumulated by humanity
does not allow us to say that an individual will ever be able to master it completely,
even after a very long training. Receiving an education only indicates mastery of a
given volume of its content in a certain area and achievement of the level of independent thinking necessary to perform professional and other activities. In this re-
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gard, the main criteria for education are systematic knowledge in a certain area of
human culture and systematic thinking, which are manifested in the fact that a person
is able to independently restore the missing links in the knowledge system using their
own logical reasoning. This idea is fully confirmed by the ancient aphorism: “Educa-
tion is what remains when everything learned is forgotten”.
Responding to the different age structure of needs and abilities, the content of
education unfolds from predominantly emotionally experienced ideas to an actively
mastered system of knowledge about the world and relationships with people, which
expand concentrically and linearly in the educational process. Pedagogically stated
selection and presentation of such material is made according to the criteria of completeness and systematicity of the types of activities necessary for the development of
intellectual-cognitive, emotional-valuable, volitional and physical qualities of the individual and the cultural content corresponding to these types of activities at various
levels of complexity. Consequently, in the perspective of human development, the
content of education is designed to ensure the full “living” of individual age stages
(childhood, adolescence, juvenile, maturity, etc.), a psychologically justified sequence of assimilation of cultural components and types of activities, as well as the
development of various abilities for the purpose of self-determination of the individual in the world of work, interpersonal and social relations.
This task in modern Russian society is solved through the development and
implementation of Federal State Educational Standards and corresponding educational programs.
Educational standards and programs
Federal State Educational Standards (FSES) represent mandatory requirements for the content, structure, conditions and timing of training in specific areas
and specialties. They define:
- mandatory minimum content of educational programs;
- maximum volume of students' lerning load;
- requirements for the level of training of graduates;
- criteria for objective assessment of the level of education and qualifications of
graduates, regardless of the form of education.
Moscow State University named after. M.V. Lomonosov and St. Petersburg
State University, as well as educational organizations in respect of which the category
“federal university” or “national research university” is established, have the right to
independently develop and approve educational standards.
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Based on the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard, educational institutions develop appropriate educational programs. They determine the
content of education and represent a complex of basic characteristics of education —
volume, content, planned results, forms of intermediate and final certification. The
programs include a curriculum, academic calendar, work programs of academic disciplines, as well as assessment and methodological materials. At the levels of general
and vocational education, as well as at vocational training, basic educational programs are implemented in the Russian Federation, and additional educational programs are implemented at additional education levels.
The main educational programs include:
- general education programs (programs of preschool, primary, basic and sec-
ondary general education);
- professional programs of secondary (training of skilled workers, office workers and mid-level specialists) and higher (bachelor's, specialist's, master's, postgraduate, residency, assistantship programs) education;
- vocational training programs (training for blue-collar professions, whitecollar positions, retraining and advanced training).
Additional educational programs include:
- general developmental (musical, artistic, sports, etc.) and pre-professional;
- additional (professional retraining and advanced training).
Each of the listed programs is aimed at achieving its specific goals. Thus, gen-
eral education is aimed at developing personality and mastering knowledge, skills
and abilities, forming competencies necessary for a person’s life in society, conscious
choice of profession and obtaining vocational education. Professional education presupposes the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as the formation of
competencies of a certain level and volume that allow one to conduct professional activities in a certain field. Vocational training is aimed at developing the knowledge,
skills, abilities and competencies necessary to perform certain labor or official func-
tions. Additional education involves meeting a person’s needs for intellectual, spir-
itual, moral, physical or professional improvement.
All content and procedural aspects of education are integrated into the curriculum. The modern plan is distinguished by the isolation of the invariant of basic education as the basis for subsequent specialization or accompanying general education.
That is why general and vocational education mutually imply each other.
The organizational system of education is designed to provide access to it to
everyone capable of mastering it. Its differentiation can only be based on the cognitive abilities of a particular individual unfolding over time.
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It should be noted that the present time is characterized by continuity and the
so-called multiculturalism of education, which become the basic principles of the educational policy of a modern civilized state. It is not limited to the walls of educational institutions, suggesting the merging of study with the work and leisure of people. For example, early childhood education is organized on a flexible basis so that
families and the community share participation while bearing the necessary costs. In
turn, school (primary, basic and secondary) education is becoming comprehensive,
increasingly aimed at providing young people and adults with broad general training,
which makes it possible to subsequently master various specialties. In addition, the
development of modern educational systems is planned taking into account the opportunities provided by new information technologies. In this regard, special attention
is paid to the problem of adult education.
Features of adult education
Adult education is a direction in education that ensures the satisfaction of the
educational needs of persons engaged in independent professional activities. Taking
into account their educational interests and age characteristics, a system of specialized institutions of general and vocational education, cultural, educational, leisure and
others is created and operates.
It should be noted that adult education appeared chronologically earlier than
children’s education, but for a long time it was not in demand by society. For a long
time, the socio-economic conditions of life did not require education in adulthood,
since the stock of knowledge, skills and abilities that people acquired in childhood
was enough for them throughout their lives. This problem became actual only in the
19th century. due to the rapid development of technology and production technologies. At this time, various general education courses became widespread in Russia,
organized in the form of Sunday schools, reading circles, workers' and peasants' circles, the main task of which was teaching literacy and educational work.
In the 60–70s of the XX century. In many countries of the world, the achievement of socio-economic stability and favorable prospects for the development of society and individuals has become associated with adult education. Moreover, it began
to have an ever-increasing influence on the entire sphere of education. In this regard,
the famous French researcher on the problems of lifelong education P. Langrand ex-
pressed the idea that “future education, if we consider it as a whole and its ability to
renew itself, depends on the development of adult education”16. This was due to the
16
Lengrand P. Introduction leducation permanente. Paris, 1970. P. 50.
188
expansion of the scientific and technological revolution, which proposed new technologies for implementation and gave rise to mass unemployment in Western countries due to the professional unpreparedness of adult workers.
A similar situation developed in the 90s of the last century in our country. This
is what necessitated the formation of a clear system providing for increasing the educational level and qualifications of workers in various spheres of society, as well as
their professional retraining. A distinctive feature of adult education in modern Russia is its predominantly evening and correspondence forms of education, which allow
students to receive education of a certain level and profile without interruption from
production activities. At the same time, advanced training and professional retraining
are carried out both during working hours and outside working hours.
The main features of the adult education system in the Russian Federation
currently are:
- state-public character;
- close connection with other subsystems of the state education system;
- based on the theory of adult learning (andragogy);
- intensive development of the educational services market;
- availability of specially trained personnel (faculty and teaching staff, creators
of special educational programs, consultants, etc.).
The main goals and the functions of adult education determined by them are
reduced to meeting the needs of the individual (in self-improvement), society (in the
formation of a socially active individual who adapts to the realities of life) and the
economy (in preparing a competent and effective worker). The ultimate goal is the
formation of an individual who actively, competently and effectively operates in the
economic and social spheres of society and personal life.
The listed goals are achieved by meeting the specific educational needs of
adults, which boil down to the following areas:
- obtaining a complete (secondary) general education;
- acquiring new or improving existing professional knowledge, skills and abili-
ties;
- maintaining and improving health;
- improving the quality of family life;
- meaningful leisure time;
- development of one’s own personal sphere.
The domestic adult education system is focused on the real needs of its consumers (users), and also takes into account and predicts the needs of the development
of the economy, society and the individual. Organizationally, it consists of five
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blocks: consumer (provision of educational services that meet the needs of adults),
information and orientation (providing information about the list of educational services and vocational guidance), content and methodological (formation of educational programs and methodological support), personnel (training of teaching staff for
working with the adult category of students) and scientific (development of theoretical and applied problems in adult education).
However, to determine the objective needs of adults in a particular region or
locality (municipal entity), constant and extensive sociological research is required to
identify the individual needs of people. The solution to this problem is currently not
provided everywhere. Elimination of this contradiction is possible on the basis of
self-education of adults and other categories of people in its unity with the educational system of the state.
Unity of education and self-education
Self-education is considered as a purposeful human activity to expand and
deepen one’s knowledge, improve existing and develop new skills, abilities and competencies, as well as personal properties and qualities necessary to perform a certain
type of professional and any other activity. In modern pedagogical science it is in-
terpreted in two aspects:
1. As a purposeful cognitive activity controlled by the individual himself.
2. As a person’s independent acquisition of systematic knowledge in any field
of science, technology, culture, political life, etc.
In any of these approaches, the basis of self-education is the direct personal interest of the student in organic combination with the independence of studying the
material. It is also considered as one of the important means of self-education.
The main types of self-education include, first of all, general and special (professional). Their main form is the study of scientific, popular science, educational,
fiction and other literature. Sources of new knowledge also include listening to lectures, reports and audio recordings, using electronic resources, consulting specialists,
watching performances and films, visiting museums and exhibitions, various types of
practical activities — experiments, experiments, modeling, etc. At the same time,
self-education is always aimed at obtaining the necessary qualifications or improvement of educational, including professional level.
Domestic historical experience shows that already in the 19th century, many
major figures in science, literature, art, and public organizations helped others in
solving this problem — they created people's libraries, reading rooms, people's hous-
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es, etc. For example, in 1863–1866, the educational and literary magazine “Self-
Education” was published in St. Petersburg. In 1893, a commission was created in
Moscow to organize home reading under the scientific department of the Society for
the Dissemination of Technical Knowledge, which developed special programs on
many subjects studied at universities, published a “Library for self-education,” and
conducted written consultations. Lightweight programs for self-education were produced by the Department for Promoting Self-Education, created in St. Petersburg
(1891) at the Pedagogical Museum of Military Educational Institutions. At the beginning of the 20th century the books of N. A. Rubakin, “Letters to Readers on SelfEducation” (1913), “The Practice of Self-Education” (1914), etc., became wide-
spread. Various societies, courses and public universities played a significant role in
the development.
Since the 20s of the past century, organized and systematic work has been carried out mainly in the field of political self-education. In the field of general selfeducation, directed by the political education departments of the People's Commissariat for Education and trade unions, a broad program of education of workers was implemented to the level of requirements of junior high school.
In the mid-30s of the 20th century, due to the significant development of the
network of secondary schools, technical schools and universities, self-education has
become the main way to independently deepen and expand the knowledge acquired
in educational institutions.
Under the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution (since the
50s of the 20th century), systems of adult education and advanced training received
widespread development. This need is also strengthened by the development of the
media, which, on the one hand, enriched the process of self-education in those years,
and on the other hand, made a person involved in the events taking place in the
world, causing the need to understand them.
Beginning of the 21st century characterized by humanistic correction of selfeducation. Now it is aimed at the harmonious development of the individual, the disclosure of human abilities, his creative potential, self-expression, and the realization
of spiritual interests.
An important role in the formation of self-education skills is played by schools
at various levels, which consider it as an obligatory component of modern education.
It can also develop as an accompaniment to learning, expanding, complementing,
deepening the material studied in an educational institution, and it can also be autonomous in relation to learning, being included in the study of new courses not present-
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