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Consideration of types of training as a specific organization of the educational
process, revealing an approach to transferring a system of knowledge, skills and abilities to students, allows us to characterize it mainly from the technological side. Its organizational structure is revealed through the concept of “form of training”.
Concept and classification of forms of training
In the history of the development of foreign and domestic schools, various educational systems are known to date, in which preference was given to one or another
form of organization. These include, for example:
- individual-group education (school system of the Middle Ages);
- peer education (English Bell-Lancaster school system);
- differentiated education according to the abilities of the students (Mannheim
school system);
- team training (Soviet school system of the 20s of the XX century);
- the American “Trump plan”, according to which 40% of the time students
study in large groups (100–150 people), 20% in small groups (10–15 people), and
40% of the time is allocated to independent work, etc.
Modern foreign and domestic educational systems look even more diverse. The
content and specificity of the forms implemented in them fully depend on the func-
tions of the forms of education and national educational traditions assigned to them.
Let us consider the main ones, manifested in domestic educational institutions at various levels.
The educational and developmental function involves creating the best conditions for transferring to students the system of knowledge, skills and abilities provided for by educational standards and curricula, forming their worldview, developing
talents, practical abilities, active participation in production activities and public life.
The educational function contributes to the formation and active manifestation
in various forms of training of certain personal properties and qualities of students. It
is understood that the specific manifestation of a person’s personal characteristics de-
pends on the form of the educational session.
The organizational function requires the teacher to have a clear organizational
and methodological presentation of educational material, a thoughtful approach to
constructing and conducting a training session.
The psychological function of forms of education involves the development of
a certain rhythm of cognitive activity in students.
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The developmental function involves an active combination of different teaching methods within the same form of training.
It should be noted that the variety of forms of education generates a wealth of
conditions for mental, work and play activities, which makes it possible to include in
the work the entire complex of mental processes of students. At the same time, the
forms of organization of the educational process provide collective and individual
cognitive activity, performing an integrative-organizational function, the implementation of which allows students to exchange information in practical matters, learn
mutual understanding and mutual assistance. No less significant are the systematizing
and structuring functions of educational forms, which require the breakdown of all
educational material into parts and topics, as well as its generalization as a whole
when organizing the educational process. In addition, in relation to each other, forms
of education are able to perform integrating and coordinating functions. Finally, the
stimulating function manifests itself most greatly when the form of teaching used by
the teacher corresponds to the age, intellectual and other characteristics of the students, the specifics of the development of their psyche and body.
The stated functions of the forms of education in their various combinations
form one or another specificity of the educational process. At the same time, it should
be taken into account that from the point of view of modern domestic didactics, the
forms of training primarily reflect the grouping of students, the place, time and mode
of classes, the relationship between collective and individual cognitive activity and
some other features of the educational process. In other words, this is an external expression of the coordinated activities of teachers and students, carried out in a determined order and mode. As a result, forms of training are understood as the organizational side of the educational process, which determines the content of training sessions, their structure, duration and place, as well as the composition and grouping of
students.
Taking into account the proposed definition, forms of education are combined into several independent groups (systems) according to certain criteria:
- on the organization of training — full-time, part-time (evening) and corre-
spondence training;
- by the number of students — collective (stream), group (classroom), individual;
- at the place of study — classroom (school lessons) and extracurricular (extracurricular — doing homework, independent work at home, in the library or electronic
learning resource system, individual training);
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- by duration — academic hour (40–45 minutes), double (pair) lesson (80–
90 minutes), lesson without bells (of arbitrary duration, not exceeding established
standards);
- according to the specifics of interaction between the teacher and students —
classroom, lecture and seminar, optional and distance learning.
It should be noted that in the presented system, the class-lesson and lectureseminar grouping of forms of education, as well as distance learning, are recognized
as the most significant for the professional activities of teachers. In this case, the first
is mainly considered as a lesson, and the second includes lectures, seminars, workshops, elective classes and some others. As a result, it is advisable to dwell on their
general characteristics.
General characteristics of the main forms of education
A lesson is the main form of a class-lesson system for organizing the educa-
tional process of a comprehensive school of all three levels and represents the educational interaction of teachers and students with the aim of transferring to students a
certain system of knowledge while simultaneously monitoring the level of their assimilation and the formation of relevant skills and abilities. It is carried out with a
group of permanent students (class) for a certain period of time (30–35 minutes in
primary school and 45 minutes in school of basic and complete secondary education).
The theoretical possibility of simultaneous teaching by one teacher during one
lesson of a large number of students (30–50 people) of the same age and level of
training was first substantiated by Ya.A. Komenius. The main task of the teacher was
to transfer ready-made knowledge to students through pedagogical influence. Lessons
alternated with a constant sequence according to a schedule drawn up for six months
or a year. Moreover, even following one after another, they, as a rule, did not have a
logical connection with each other, since they only involved memorizing educational
material.
Many teachers were aware of these shortcomings of the classical lesson and
tried to contrast it with the ideas of individualized learning and other innovations
aimed at enhancing the cognitive activity of students. For example, in Russia in the
20s of the last century, so-called “lesson classes” were held. However, in 1932, the
class-lesson education system was restored in the structure of public education.
In the 60s of the XX century, the lesson ceases to be the only form of organizing educational activities. In secondary schools, various types of practical training,
excursions, classes in clubs, workshops and other forms of training are widely used.
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In the 80s of the XX century, new types of schools were proposed (for example, specialized training or in-depth study of individual subjects), other pedagogical
technologies (including concentrated training), alternative curricula (including the so-
called “leveling classes”), etc., which made it possible to significantly expand both
the concept of the lesson and its structure. In this regard, in the theory and practice of
domestic didactics, the question was raised about the need to develop the problem of
the so-called “modern lesson”, in which technical teaching aids, problematic ele-
ments, the principle of optimizing the educational process, etc. are widely used. Sub-
sequently, in connection with the active development of the basic ideas of “pedagogy
of cooperation”, the lesson, in contrast to the existing “impact”, is already considered
as an “interaction” between teachers and students.
Currently, the didactic structure of the lesson includes several interrelated
elements (stages):
- updating students’ previous knowledge and methods of action (not only their
reproduction, but also their use in a new situation);
- formation of new concepts and methods of action through the delivery of new
educational material;
- application of educational material in order to form new knowledge, as well
as primary skills and abilities to apply them.
The modern lesson is characterized by the interconnection of all its elements.
For this purpose, at different levels of assimilation, various methods, techniques and
means are used, the relationship between its individual stages changes — they can
expand, contract or be completely eliminated. The place and functions of teaching
methods implemented in lessons are changing. Thus, a conversation, with which, as a
rule, the study of new material begins, can summarize the results of students’ inde-
pendent (extracurricular) work. Laboratory work that completes previously studied
topics becomes a method by which the study of a new educational question begins, etc.
At the same time, in the pedagogical practice of secondary schools in recent
years, other approaches have been identified. In the pedagogical literature they are
referred to as “non-standard lessons”. Their name itself gives a sufficient idea of the
goals, objectives and methods of their implementation. For example, “business
games” involve the joint solution of a complex educational task, including several
topics or a training section. “Press conferences” provide a question-and-answer approach to the lesson, in which both questions and answers are prepared by the students themselves. A similar non-traditional approach involves lessons such as “com-
petitions”, “student consultations”, “concerts”, “olympiads”, etc. This allows you to
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relieve some of the tension of students, stimulate their creativity and activity in learning, generate interest in the academic discipline, etc.
If the lesson is the main form of the classroom-lesson system for organizing
and conducting training sessions in a Russian secondary school, then others, from
those previously listed, are implemented mainly in professional educational institutions of the middle and higher levels.
Lecture (from Latin lectio — reading) is a systematic, sequential, monologue
presentation by a teacher (teacher, teacher, lecturer) of educational material, usually
of a theoretical nature. As one of the forms of education, it is traditional for higher
education, where courses in most subjects of the curriculum are formed on its basis.
In secondary general education and vocational schools, it usually only complements
the forms and methods of teaching specific to these educational institutions and more
often used — it can replace a separate lesson, be part of it, or be used in elective classes. Its use in this case is also important as a means of preparing students for studying
in higher education, self-education, independent work, etc.
Lectures are classified according to several bases:
- by place in a lecture or subject training course (introductory, installation, cur-
rent, review, final);
- according to the frequency of communication between the lecturer and the
permanent audience (one-time, thematic, cyclical, etc.);
- according to the degree of problematic presentation (informational, problem-
atic, discussion), etc.
It is believed that a lecture is the most time-efficient form of communicating a
significant amount of educational information to listeners. The individuality of the
lecturer and their ability to constantly improve the content through their own research, familiarity with new literature, and scientific communication with colleagues
makes it almost irreplaceable for other sources, which, as a rule, “work” in the educational process with a certain delay. However, the predominantly informational role of
the lecture is associated with a certain passivity of students, and this circumstance requires special measures to enhance their cognitive activity.
In the absence of supporting notes (a special printout of the main theses of the
lecture), students must independently take notes, the main task of which is to facilitate the functioning of the motor component of memory and (with subsequent use) indepth assimilation and processing of educational material. However, notes are useful
only when students are initially focused on mental processing of the material, highlighting and recording in abstract form the main content of the lecture.
246
A seminar, unlike a lecture, is one of the main forms of group training sessions.
Its essence lies in the collective discussion by students of the content of specially
proposed educational questions, as well as abstracts, reports and messages completed
by them independently under the guidance of a teacher for the purpose of in-depth
study of a topic or section of the course. During the seminars, students master the
methodology of the branch of science being studied, acquire the skills of independent
work and its presentation (oral or written presentation, reasoned defense of their own
conclusions). In Russian secondary schools, seminars, as a rule, begin to be used only
at the final stage of completing secondary education.
The seminar may be preceded by a special consultation20, at which the teacher
explains the topic and purpose of the lesson, the essence of the issues to be discussed,
gives the necessary instructions for the preparation of reports, messages and other
fixed presentations (abstract messages, literature reviews, etc.), mainly of a methodological nature. One of the main conditions for a successful seminar is the availability
of sources of educational and scientific literature, reference materials, both on paper
(books) and in the form of an electronic resource, available to each listener. Conse-
quently, the student’s independent educational search during preliminary preparation
for the seminar is carried out with significant corrective assistance from the teacher.
In addition, the course of discussion of educational issues and discussions is also
planned by the leader in the interests of developing students' independent work skills.
The effectiveness of seminar classes increases significantly if the teacher thinks
in advance about the desired course of the discussion, as well as questions that will
force them to independently look for ways to solve the educational and cognitive
problem that have arisen, help to abandon the usual cliches and stereotypes of thinking and create conditions for students to express their personal position. The possibilities of the seminar also allow you to simulate any learning situation and use it for
both educational and educational purposes.
The workshop is also one of the main group forms of organizing the educational process and is the independent performance of practical and laboratory work by
students under the guidance of a teacher. It is usually carried out at the completion of
large sections of training courses or at the end of the training period. The types and
content of practical training in a secondary school correspond to the profiles of its labor training. In secondary and higher educational institutions of vocational education,
they correspond to the profile of the specialties for which they train specialists. The
list of laboratory and practical work included in the workshop is determined by the
curriculum.
20
Consultation (from Latin consultatio — meeting) is one of the types of educational work that involves the
teacher providing additional assistance to students in mastering an academic subject or performing research work.
247
The work included in the workshop, as a rule, is research and is aimed at testing the reliability of certain scientific laws, provisions, etc. At the same time, in recent years they have been carried out with the aim of developing primary skills and
abilities to apply the acquired knowledge in the intended field of professional activity — pedagogical, economic, service, etc.
To conduct practical or laboratory work, a description is prepared that contains
a clear statement of its purpose, a list of necessary equipment, and sources of information. The leader of the lesson also draws up a written assignment, which sets out
not only educational questions, but also methods of self-control, the necessary tables,
drawings, diagrams. In preparation for conducting a workshop on labor training, an
instruction card is drawn up for each type of work.
On the eve of laboratory and practical work, a special consultation session can
also be carried out. In the process of their implementation, the teacher monitors the
correct choice of equipment, the ability to prepare and use it, if necessary, provides
students with consulting assistance, monitors compliance with safety regulations and
the rational organization of educational and cognitive work.
Elective classes, as a specific form, are voluntary training based on interests
with the aim of expanding and deepening knowledge, developing the abilities and inclinations of students, as well as their preliminary vocational guidance. They have
been implemented in the domestic educational system since 1966.
Special hours are allocated for elective classes in the general education school
curriculum in classes, as a rule, of complete secondary education. In a vocational
school of the middle and higher levels, their list and volume (in higher education —
450 hours) are determined by the State Educational Standard.
Students are enrolled in groups of elective courses at will, as a rule, from one
or more parallel classes, study groups or streams. However, it is also possible to form
groups consisting of students from different parallels (classes or courses). The programs of elective courses are indicative in nature. The head of the elective may, at his
own discretion, exclude certain topics from the program or submit them for independent study, and pay more attention to issues that are of particular interest to students in the elective.
To date, several electives operate in domestic schools at various levels, depending on their purpose. Currently, the most common ones are:
- electives in subjects included in the curriculum, in which the content of the
academic subject is studied in depth, the knowledge gained in scheduled classes is
systematized and generalized;
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- applied elective classes are conducted with the aim of getting acquainted with
the most important ways and methods of applying knowledge in practice, developing
interest in modern science, technology, and production;
- at optional special courses, individual issues of the course being studied are
examined in depth, as well as problems that go beyond the educational standard and
curriculum;
- interdisciplinary electives have as their goal the integration of students’ vari-
ous knowledge about nature, society, production, etc.
Students choose elective courses every year. This makes it possible to take into
account their individual characteristics and capabilities, to increase the degree of independence in the formation of a specific system of knowledge, skills and abilities
that corresponds to their own ideas, educational and professional needs. At the same
time, the element of independence is further enhanced when distance learning is used
in the educational process.
Features of distance learning
The concept of “distance learning” appeared in the Russian educational system
at the very beginning of the 90s of the 20th century — this is how they began to call
correspondence education obtained with the help of various technical means (audio
and video tape recorders, television, etc.). The training carried out with their help
seemed more effective — in addition to textbooks and “methods,” students began to
be given video cassettes with recordings of lectures or educational films, as well as
floppy disks (later CDs) with training and monitoring programs. Television technologies have also changed the usual face-to-face learning — it has become possible to
broadcast lectures on the television networks of educational institutions in real time.
In the second half of the 90s of the last century, the term “open education” be-
gan to be used in the educational process, that is, accessible to anyone at any time and
in any place. Finally, at the beginning of the 21st century, these forms of learning
were united under the concept of e-learning21 (electronic learning). Its subsequent development led to the expansion of access to education. Now any person, regardless of
age and educational qualifications, has the opportunity to purchase sets of educational
materials on electronic media, master them, consult with teachers and then take exams at certified educational institutions at various levels. In this regard, the category
21
The UNESCO Working Group on New Technologies in Education does not recommend translating this term
into national languages.
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“open” appeared in the names of the relevant educational institutions (for example,
the Russian State Open University, the Moscow Institute of Open Education, etc.).
The use of modern information technologies, primarily the Internet, in the
open education system has given the educational process specific features:
- firstly, this is the instant transfer of information via e-mail (consulting with
professors, sending methodological recommendations, text and hypertext textbooks);
- secondly, online lectures, online seminars (webinars), communication on forums, chats, conferences with both teachers and fellow students make it possible to
quickly solve many educational problems;
- thirdly, electronic training courses posted by educational institutions, both on
the Internet and on compact discs (CD), contain not only texts, but also the necessary
illustrations (animation, video, etc.), questions for knowledge tests, hyperlinks to reference materials;
- fourthly, e-learning involves the student using all the intellectual resources of
the World Wide Web.
At the same time, it is believed that distance learning itself using electronic
means has no independent value — the latest methods are good only when combined
with traditional ones. In this regard, in educational institutions that use distance technologies, personal educational mentors (tutors) work with students, who are assigned
the role of leading subjects in the educational process. They are the ones who plan
and organize the studies of their students, monitor the timeliness and correctness of
intermediate tests, tests and exams.
The considered types and forms of organizing educational activities in the conditions of a domestic educational school are not complete. In modern pedagogical literature, some authors also include some other online means (for example, discussions, conferences, etc.). However, an analysis of the technology for their implementation in the educational process allows us to talk about some illegality of this approach — they reflect not so much the organizational aspects of training as the methods and conditions of interaction between subjects and objects of the educational pro-
cess. And this is another component of learning, revealed by the concepts of “methods,” “techniques,” and “means” for managing the educational activities of teachers
and students.
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8.2. METHODS, TECHNIQUES AND CONTROLS
OF EDUCATIONAL AND COGNITIVE ACTIVITIES
As is known, learning is a process of bilateral didactic activity between teachers and students. Moreover, the types of their activities can be carried out in a wide
variety of ways, depending on the requirements of the educational programs, the
means used, the existing conditions of the learning environment, etc. It is these conditions that are considered as methods of managing the educational and cognitive process.
Concept and classification of teaching methods
The word “method” is of Greek origin (methodos — path of research or
knowledge, theory, teaching). The very etymology (origin) of a word affects its interpretation in scientific literature. For example, in philosophy, in its most general form,
it is considered as “a way of achieving a goal, an activity ordered in a certain way22”.
As a result, in the educational process it can be considered as an orderly way of interconnected activities of the teacher and student to achieve the intended educational
goals. From this point of view, each teaching method organically includes the professional work of the teacher and the organization of active educational and cognitive
activity of students. For example, a teacher can explain new educational material
himself (i.e., use the explanation method) and at the same time stimulate the active
cognitive activity of students (encourage them to think, formulate independent conclusions, etc.). At the same time, he may not explain it, but only define the topic,
conduct an introductory conversation, instruct about the procedure for subsequent educational work, and then offer to independently study, comprehend and assimilate the
material from the textbook. Each of the presented options for constructing a lesson
has its own specifics, but each approach has a unique system of teaching tools used.
Teaching methods are considered a historically emerging pedagogical category. Their understanding depends on the goals, content and conditions of education. In
this regard, the American teacher K. Kerr, in the theoretical development of the prob-
lem of teaching methods, identified four stages, which he called “revolutions”. The
first is associated with the transfer of teaching functions by parents into the hands of
professional teachers. The essence of the second is to replace the spoken word with
the written word. At the third stage, the printed word (books) was introduced into the
learning process. The fourth stage currently underway involves expanding active au-
22
Философский словарь / П.И. Абрамов и др.; под ред. И.Т. Фролова. М.: Республика, 2001. С. 278.
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