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Файл:Psychology and pedagogy. Study aid
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The core characteristics of a person are the result of the development of
individuality under the influence of the environment, targeted training, education and
personal activity, refracted in accordance with one’s temperament, throughout their
entire previous life. Identification of social factors under which a person developed
from an early age (national customs, traditions, norms of behavior, religiosity, the
area in which they grew up, family characteristics, friends, reference groups,
teachers, influential individuals, etc.) allows the manager understands the uniqueness
of the formation of personality psychology. Knowing the characteristics of the
character, temperament, life position, and the established habits of a subordinate
employee or colleague, manager can largely understand employee’s behavior, actions
and deeds, anticipate their manifestation in various environmental conditions, and
more purposefully use the individual capabilities of human psychology in the
interests of increasing the level of their professional activity. All this forms the
corresponding content of knowledge about a person.
Content of knowledge about a person
The content of knowledge about a person is formed as a result of obtaining an
answer to the question of what is necessary to know about them in order to increase
the efficiency of official interaction (organization and management of their activities,
professional training and education) with them. The answer to this question can be
found in the domestic psychological and pedagogical literature of recent years. Let's
look at the most common approach.
1. A person’s life experience. Place of Birth. Where do parents and other close
relatives live and work? Family composition. The attitude of parents towards children
and among themselves. Which parent had more influence and why? Married or
single. What school did you go to? Success in your studies. What subjects did you
like and why? What did you enjoy in your free time? Who were you friends with?
What clubs did you attend? What kind of public work did you do? What kind of
literature did you read, what attracted you to it? What profession did you dream of?
Do you have a religion? If yes, which one? Attitude towards religion. The influence
of religion on professional activities, behavior at home, relationships with colleagues.
2. The orientation of the individual, which is manifested in the general and
private goals of educational, professional and other activities, moral views, beliefs,
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ideals, life attitudes, general outlook, motives of behavior, professional training,
professional activity, determination in achieving life goals that are significant to
them.
3. Characteristics of the subordinate. Indicators of its manifestation are: its
strength; attitude towards the team and its leader, oneself, comrades, official
activities; determination; stability and performance; adherence to principles and
responsibility in solving official tasks and performing socially significant work
assigned to them; attitude towards material and moral incentives implemented in a
particular company.
4. Temperament. Its originality is determined by the type of nervous system
(choleric, sanguine, melancholic, phlegmatic) and is manifested in mobility,
sociability, perseverance, and emotionality. Knowing the type of temperament allows
you to most rationally determine the range of responsibilities of an employee.
5. The intellectual and cognitive qualities of a person are largely characterized by the ability to analyze, generalize, and compare; inclinations to specific activities; leading interests and their orientation (what they read, what they are interested
in); methodological skills in independent work on self-improvement; level of attention and observation; memory characteristics, etc.
6. The emotional qualities of the individual are reflected in the employee’s
internal relations to the phenomena and objects of the surrounding world,
encouraging them to be active and overcome difficulties. They characterize: the
direction of experiences; the formation of a sense of corporate and professional duty
and responsibility; the ability to manage one’s feelings in extreme operating
conditions.
7. Strong-willed qualities. Professionally important strong-willed qualities of
employees in the service, social, economic and other spheres of society include:
determination, self-control, determination, independence, perseverance, the ability to
make independent decisions and achieve their implementation, initiative, diligence.
8. An employee's habits can have a positive or negative aspect. Positive
habits include professional accuracy, diligence, responsibility for solving various
issues of official activity, professional training, social and public work; intolerance to
shortcomings, etc. Negative ones include lack of self-control, rudeness, foul
language, sloppiness, lack of composure.
9. Social and public activity is manifested: in the fulfillment of public assignments (has constant or carries out individual assignments, attitude towards them
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and performance effectiveness); assessment by immediate managers of its motives
(the existing attitude of activity, the need to communicate with people, activity for the
development of the company, ostentatious activity, etc.); critical assessment of one's
own activities and the activities of other employees.
10. Corporate discipline reflects the integral level of education of an
employee, the extent to which they are able to manage their behavior in accordance
with existing requirements. Indicators of discipline are knowledge and fulfillment of
requirements, organization, accuracy, punctuality, diligence, honesty, truthfulness,
and sincerity.
11. Physical development and health status. The need for the manager to
take this indicator into account is dictated by the fact that physical development and
culture characterize the versatility and perfection of the individual. It largely
determines the subordinate’s ability to overcome emerging difficulties (tension) in
solving professional problems and achieve professional success in difficult
conditions. Physical development is characterized by the level of general physical
fitness and susceptibility to diseases; systematic hardening of your body; maintaining
normal physical condition through training (classes in sections, clubs, etc.)
A manager’s knowledge of the listed characteristics of a subordinate will allow
manager to sufficiently fully determine the psychological characteristics of
employee’s personality, anticipate actions, and more purposefully work with them to
form and consolidate those of them that have a positive orientation and can be used in
the interests of improving the quality of the employee’s professional activity.
However, the completeness and objectivity of this information largely depends on the
fulfillment of a number of important organizational and pedagogical requirements.
Employee Study Requirements
The previously discussed methodological positions of domestic psychology
require the study of any phenomenon in the process of its constant development. This
fully applies to the study of man. As a result, the study of the individual
psychological characteristics of subordinate personnel should be carried out taking
into account the physical, moral, spiritual and other changes occurring in them. To do
this, it is advisable to consider each personal quality from the following points of
view:
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- features of the manifestation of this quality at the present time and the degree
of change compared to the past, which makes it possible to identify the dynamics of
their subsequent development;
- stability of the quality under study when it manifests itself in complicated and
unfavorable conditions of professional activity or interpersonal interaction;
- identifying the reasons that caused the formation of this quality;
- assessment of the compatibility of the identified personal quality with other
psychological characteristics of the employee.
No less important is the requirement to study the subordinate comprehensively
and comprehensively. To this end, the manager is recommended to:
- apply not just one method, but combine it with others in the process of studying personality. Data obtained by one method must be confirmed, refuted or
supplemented by others;
- study the employee in various types of their professional activities and interpersonal interactions;
- analyze the manifestation of individual psychological characteristics of subordinate employees from the standpoint of their assessment by other categories of
service, organization, and company managers who interact with them. Generalization
and comparison of each person's value judgments allows us to draw a more objective
conclusion about the personal characteristics of employees.
The requirements for studying an employee also include the need to solve this
problem in the conditions of a structural unit (team) and with the involvement of
other employees (through the team). To do this you need:
- compare the behavior and actions of a subordinate with similar manifestations
of the personal characteristics of other employees;
- take into account the nature of the functioning, the tasks being solved (service, social, economic, etc.) and the specifics of the moral and psychological atmosphere of the organization in which the employee worked before;
- know and take into account the value judgments of other employees about the
characteristics of the subordinate’s personal sphere.
And finally, for a manager (specialist), in order to increase the level of
objectivity of information about the psychological characteristics of subordinates and
employees, it is very important to constantly deepen the available information about
them, the ability to subject it to logical processing and psychological and pedagogical
analysis. Only in this case is a prerequisite created for predicting the actions and
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behavior of employees in various conditions of professional activity and interpersonal
interaction.
At the same time, information about the psychological characteristics of the
individual that the manager possesses can be used outside the company
(organization). In this case, the question arises about the form of its transmission.
One of them is psychological characteristics.
It should be borne in mind that compiling a complete psychological profile of
an employee is the task of a psychologist in a professional selection or personnel
selection department. However, its most pronounced elements (for example,
character traits dominant in a given period, emotional states, etc.), which significantly
influence the quality of professional activity, should be included in the content of the
job description (recommendation) given by the manager (recommender). In this
regard, a very important ethical problem arises, which manifests itself when
transferring the results of studying the characteristics of the personal sphere of
subordinates (employees) to other categories of managers.
Ethical requirements for the use of results
of psychological study of an employee
The problem of pedagogical requirements for the use of the results of
psychological study of personality, especially those recommended for work in other
structural divisions of the company, requires special attention. As an analysis of the
professional activity of a manager shows, quite confidential information becomes
available to them, which can be used for various interests. This places special
pedagogical, professional and ethical requirements on the leader. Let's consider the
first of these, which are the subject of psychology and pedagogy.
It should be noted that each specific situation of applying the results of a
psychological study of a subordinate presupposes that the manager has his own
assessment of the mental reality in which the employee is located, and its coincidence
with a similar assessment of another information user (the head of another structural
unit of the company) in the relevant areas of their application. When communicating
to these individuals the employee’s own psychological characteristics, it is necessary
to proceed from the fact that each of the users of manager’s information must be
prepared for its perception and rational use. It is important to understand to what
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extent the other manager has formed their personal psychological and pedagogical
attitude in relation to the information received — the task of understanding its
significance for themself and the employee with whom they will work. In this case, it
is considered inappropriate to disclose information about a subordinate that is not
related to the sphere of professional activity of the informed person.
It should be noted that the user of information, in the course of providing it,
forms their own value judgment about its objectivity and completeness. Therefore,
the leader must present it in an understandable form using accessible vocabulary,
clearly interpretable categories and clear conclusions. This will allow a new user of
information about the personal characteristics of an employee to avoid the need to
independently interpret the information received in the light of their job tasks and the
goals facing the department.
In the professional activities of a manager, there are also frequent cases when
one uses the information they have about the psychological characteristics of a
subordinate’s personality in the interests of educational influence on employee or
increasing the effectiveness of professional training. In this case, this is purely
pedagogical information, since it is assumed that the employee, having realized the
requirements or recommendations placed on them, will influence themself and
engage in self-development. In this pedagogical situation, the leader bears personal
pedagogical responsibility for the correctness of the conclusions, their accuracy and
reliability, for their ethical aspect and, to a lesser extent, for how they will be used.
These are the main methodological, methodical and ethical provisions on
which psychology and pedagogy rely, considering personality as a subject of study by
a manager or specialist in the service, social or economic sphere of society. Many of
them are still at the stage of detailed scientific and applied development, but even the
existing level already allows us to more effectively solve this problem. First of all,
this concerns the actual process of diagnosing the psychological characteristics of an
individual.
3.2. DIAGNOSIS OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL SPHERE OF PERSONALITY
Studying the psychological characteristics of the personality of employees is a
very complex, but necessary job task of a manager (specialist). The effectiveness of
their professional activities as the head of a structural unit of the company largely
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depends on its decision. Consequently, they are interested in owning the appropriate
“tools” for obtaining the psychological and pedagogical information they need. Such
tools are the appropriate methods for studying the psychological characteristics of the
individual.
Methods for studying psychological characteristics of personality
To study (diagnose) the psychological characteristics of an individual, a system
of psychological and pedagogical methods is used, which can be roughly divided into
three groups:
1. A universal method, the basis of which is the laws of materialistic dialectics. Its main feature is that it can be used to analyze all personal characteristics of a
person without exception, but allows one to form only a general idea of their
indicators.
2. General methods: observation, experiment, cognitive (diagnostic) conversation, questioning, analysis of performance results, analysis of documents, study of
independent characteristics, biographical, etc.
3. Special (private) methods: testing, survey, projective and some others.
Each of them solves its own problems, has a different implementation
technology (methodology) from others, and is distinguished by the specific
objectivity of the information. These factors predetermine the possibility of their use
by one or another category of managers, depending on the characteristics of their
professional activities.
The professional activity of the head of a structural unit of a company also has
its own specifics, which determines the choice from the proposed system of those
methods, the use of which is not only accessible, but necessary and, finally, rational
in the work of studying subordinates. These primarily include methods of
observation, cognitive (diagnostic) conversation, analysis of performance results and
analysis of documents. Let us consider the main content of the listed methods and
some methodological recommendations for their use in the professional activities of a
manager.
As practice shows, one of the most accessible and widely used methods for
studying the psychological characteristics of a person is observation. It is understood
as the study of the psychological characteristics of an individual based on an analysis
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of their external manifestations in natural (professional, social, everyday, etc.)
conditions. It involves the systematic, purposeful accumulation of facts characterizing
the actions, behavior, judgments, manifestations of the personality traits of a
subordinate, allowing one to draw conclusions about his individual psychological
identity. The external side of behavioral activity (gestures, facial expressions, speech
characteristics, actions) is only empirical, source material (information), and the
actual subject of study is their mental content. Therefore, the main thing in
observation is the correct (reasonable) interpretation (interpretation) of the
psychological meaning of externally observed phenomena.
The listed requirements led to the formation of several varieties of the
method:
- external observation — a way of collecting information about a person by
analyzing his actions from the outside;
- internal observation (self-observation) — studying the phenomenon of inter-
est, as if peering into oneself, observing one’s reasoning and emotional reactions;
- free observation — which does not have a predetermined program and arbi-
trarily changes its subject depending on the desire of the person;
- standardized observation is carried out in a certain sequence, according to a
pre-developed program;
- participant observation is carried out if the manager takes part in the activities performed by the subordinate and at the same time analyzes the manifestations of
personality phenomena that interest him;
- objective observation of an employee can be carried out in various conditions
of his daily life and professional activities.
The reliability of the observation results depends on the following conditions:
the clear understanding by the manager (specialist) of what they wants to know about
the subordinate employee; purposeful planning and selection of situations in which
the student most fully manifests himself; systematicity of observations, their
selectivity and duration; comparison of observation data with data obtained by other
persons and other methods of studying a person.
Impressions about the personal qualities and emotional state of a person are
complemented by observations of the rhythm of movement, gait, typical posture of
the employee, as well as their physiognomy — the manifestation of personal
characteristics in facial expressions and the posture theye take in the process of nonverbal communication. Psychologists have found that verbal communication takes up
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less than 35 %, and more than 65 % of information is transmitted through non-verbal
(without words) means of communication. The problem facing the manager is to
learn to non-verbally study a subordinate, to determine the state by its external
manifestation. For example, a psychological analysis of facial expressions (facial
features of the emotions of joy, fear, anger) allows us to classify a person to the
appropriate temperament: in a sanguine person the emotions of joy predominate, in a
choleric person — anger, in a melancholic person — fear, in a phlegmatic person
emotions are stable, sometimes difficult to define.
A study of the work experience of heads of structural divisions of a number of
companies showed that it is not always possible to judge a person by his appearance,
by individual actions, or to draw conclusions based on a single observation. This is
one of the reasons when, due to an episodic action of a subordinate or one of his
statements, the manager tries to create for him the image of “incapable”, “passive”,
“non-executive”, etc.
The results of observation require systematic analysis, during which the
manager studies and compares the identified facts, highlights the most characteristic
features of personality manifestation, and supplements the results obtained with the
help of other psychological and pedagogical methods. As practice shows, this is done
quite successfully during an individual conversation with a subordinate.
From the point of view of domestic psychology and pedagogy, an individual
diagnostic (cognitive) conversation is a study of the personal characteristics of an
employee based on an analysis of the value judgments he expresses about objects and
phenomena of the objective world. As analysis shows, this is one of the accessible,
important and most effective methods of studying a subordinate. During its course,
the manager has the opportunity not only to gain a deeper understanding of a person’s
inner world, their views, beliefs, ideals, but also to support positive aspirations, direct
them at solving corporate problems, inspire them to do useful things, pay attention to
shortcomings and help in eliminating them.
Each individual conversation requires special preliminary preparation:
familiarization with biographical information; determining the purpose, time and
place of its implementation; thinking through a plan for conducting a conversation,
questions and methods for conducting it (entering into a conversation, creating the
necessary emotional situation, addressing questions of interest, etc.).
The most effective conversation takes place in a relaxed atmosphere, when the
employee is more predisposed to conversation: during a lunch break (if he does not
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have his own plans for this time), during corporate meetings, etc. Planning a
conversation methodology allows the manager to prepare for it and conduct the
conversation not in general, but purposefully.
Practice shows that when preparing for a conversation, a manager must pay
attention to factors that allow a deeper understanding of the individual characteristics
of a subordinate: interests, views, beliefs, ideals; an idea of life prospects, attitudes;
manifestation of character traits; range of interests; characterization of subordinates
of their employees; attitude towards work activities, difficulties experienced, what is
achieved relatively easily, what kind of help is needed; leisure activities, weekends
and holidays; characteristics of family relationships, relationships with family
members, comrades; attitude of colleagues towards them, etc.
The effectiveness of an individual diagnostic conversation largely depends on
compliance with certain pedagogical conditions. These include: a clear awareness by
the manager what they need to find out about the subordinate; active conversation on
manager’s part and on the part of the interlocutor; ease, acceptable frankness,
necessary integrity.
The pedagogical direction of a diagnostic conversation with a subordinate
largely depends on those feedbacks that are formed in the process of interaction
spontaneously or as a result of skillful psychological and pedagogical actions of the
leader. Their formation can be facilitated by the use of some psychological and
pedagogical advice taken from the works of domestic and foreign specialists in the
field of communication:
- when talking with a subordinate, show sincere interest in them as a person, in
their views, judgments, etc.;
- remember that for any person the sound of their name is the sweetest and
most important sound of human speech;
- encourage a person's desire to talk about themselves. The better you do it, the
more surprising the results can be;
- choose a topic for communication that is in the circle of interests of your interlocutor. These could be their work or social problems, health problems and much
more;
- always give the subordinate the opportunity to feel their importance in the
team;
- unobtrusively focus the interlocutor's attention on your own desire to help
them resolve the problems he faces.
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