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attention, memory, thinking and speech. In accordance with the tasks being solved,
the listed processes are called mental cognitive processes.
Simultaneously with the knowledge of the surrounding world, a person
adequately reacts to ongoing events and phenomena with an appropriate state, which
is the product of emotional-volitional processes — emotions, feelings and will.
Mental cognitive processes
Mental cognitive processes represent a consistent reflection in the human
mind of objects and phenomena of the objective world. In Russian psychology, three
levels of knowledge of the surrounding reality are distinguished: elementary
(sensation and perception), intermediate (idea and imagination) and higher (thinking).
The solution of cognitive problems at the elementary and intermediate levels is
provided by the processes of attention and memory, and at the highest levels —
speech.
Sensation is the process of reflection in a person’s consciousness of individual
properties and qualities of objects and phenomena of objective reality that directly
affect his senses. It represents the initial stage of human cognition of the surrounding
world and can be considered as a direct connection of consciousness with the outside
world, the transformation of the energy of an external stimulus into a fact of
consciousness.
The physiological basis of sensations is the work of the neuro-physiological
apparatus, which consists of a receptor — a nerve ending that directly perceives the
actions of stimuli from the external environment or the human body; the neural
pathway along which sensations are transmitted to the brain, and the nerve center —
the area of the cerebral cortex that processes information coming from the receptor.
Depending on their location in the body, all receptors are divided into exteroceptors
located on the surface of the body (visual, auditory, olfactory, etc.); interoreceptors — nerve endings that reflect information coming from internal organs; proprioceptors, the nerve endings of which are located in the muscles of the body and the
vestibular apparatus, delivering information about the movement and position of the
body in space.
Depending on the properties and qualities of the reflected objective reality, the
following types of sensations are distinguished: visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory,
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tactile (tactile), motor, sensations of body position in space, sensations of
coordination of movements, vibration, pain, temperature and organic.
The completeness and quality of sensations transmitted to the cerebral cortex
depend on a number of its indicators. The most significant characteristics of
sensations include:
- minimum (lower) threshold of sensations — the smallest value of the stimulus, starting from which it is reflected in the cerebral cortex. The lower the value of
this threshold, the higher the sensitivity of the analyzer;
- maximum (upper) threshold of sensations — the magnitude of the stimulus,
from which it either ceases to be reflected in the cerebral cortex, or pain occurs. Its
value can be influenced by the nature of a person’s activity, his functional state, the
strength and duration of the stimulus, the person’s age, etc.;
- range of sensations — the difference between the lower and upper threshold
of sensations. Its value characterizes the ability of the analyzer to perceive a
particular volume of stimuli acting on it;
- discrimination threshold (difference threshold) — the minimum value that allows you to determine the differences between two identical stimuli. The lower its
value, the higher the differentiation ability of this analyzer to distinguish between
different stimuli.
Features of the sensations include:
- adaptation — adaptation of sensory organs (eyes, auditory analyzers, etc.) to
the strength of existing stimuli. It can manifest itself as a complete disappearance of
sensation as a result of prolonged exposure to an irritant, or as an increase or decrease
in sensitivity under the influence of exposure to an irritant;
- sensitization — an increase in the sensitivity of analyzers due to an increase
in the excitability of the cerebral cortex under the influence of the simultaneous activity of other analyzers. For example, the feeling of rhythm helps to enhance musclemotor sensitivity. It can also be developed with the help of special exercises (for musicians — auditory sensitivity, for tasters — olfactory and gustatory sensitivity, etc.);
- dependence of the strength of sensations on the strength of the stimulus.
Moreover, if the strength of the stimulus increases in geometric progression, then the
strength of sensations increases only in arithmetic progression;
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- the phenomenon of contrast — a different sensation of the same stimulus depending on the experience or simultaneous action of another stimulus. Weak stimuli
increase sensitivity to other simultaneously acting stimuli, and strong ones reduce it;
- sequential images — continuation of sensation after the cessation of the
stimulus.
Perception is the process of holistic reflection in a person’s consciousness of
objects and phenomena of the objective world that at a given moment in time affect
their senses. This is a kind of understanding of the content of what has an impact on
the psyche. The process of perception allows you to combine different types of individual sensations into one. However, this is not a simple sum of sensations received
from this or that object, but a qualitatively new stage of sensory cognition with its inherent features.
The physiological basis of perception is the complex activity of the system of
analyzers of the cerebral cortex, which compare different types of incoming sensations.
Compared to sensations, perception is a higher form of analytical-synthetic activity of the brain, without which a meaningful understanding of the nature of the influencing stimulus is impossible. It is this that ensures the selection of the object of
perception, on the basis of which the synthesis of all its properties in a holistic image
is carried out.
Depending on the predominant role of a particular analyzer, it is customary to
distinguish the following types of perceptions: visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory,
tactile, motor, coordination, etc. In addition, the process under consideration identifies some others that are formed on the basis of complex action analyzers: perception
of time (fixation of segments of past time), space (volume of objects, distance between them, relative position), shape, size, depth, etc.
According to the degree of participation of the will in the process of perception, intentional and unintentional perception are distinguished. A special form of intentional perception is observation. However, as a result of distortion of incoming information due to the painful physiological or psychological state of a person, his lack
of experience or the special disguise of objects, illusory perception (illusions) may
appear.
The most important feature of perception is activity (perception of objective
reality as a result of interaction with it), constancy (continuity of the process of per-
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ception), apperception (dependence of perception on the experience and personal
qualities of a person).
The main characteristics of perception include: objectivity (the completeness of
the formation of a specific object or phenomenon), meaningfulness (perception of objects and phenomena taking into account their meaning for a person), integrity (adding with consciousness the missing details of the objective world), selectivity (perception of only necessary objects and phenomena).
Information entering the human consciousness based on the perception of the
objective world is further recorded by memory.
Memory is the process of remembering, preserving and reproducing by a person what they perceived, what they thought about and what they experienced.
Memorization is the imprinting in the human mind of information received
through the senses. It can be mechanical or semantic (logical), intentional (voluntary)
or unintentional (involuntary).
Preservation is a further comprehension of the material and mastery of it. During this process, connections are established with what was previously remembered,
the main thing is highlighted, and systematization is carried out.
The opposite process of preservation is forgetting. The main factor in its activation is time. According to the law of the German psychologist G. Ebinhaus, the intensity of forgetting is highest in the first hours after the perception of the material.
Reproduction is the restoration of remembered information in a person’s mind.
It can take the form of recognition or recall. In this case, physiological processes similar to perception are carried out: memory requires the work of the same central nervous apparatus. The only difference is that during perception, central physiological
processes are continuously supported by irritation of receptors, and during reproduction they represent only their peculiar “traces.”
Currently, there is no common understanding of the physiological basis of
memory, but most psychologists share the idea of its functioning at the neural level—
the establishment of connections between various neurons of the cerebral cortex corresponding to the information entering memory. The mechanisms of memory are rep-
etition, establishing connections (“weaving” new knowledge into existing ones) and
relationships (reliance on acquired knowledge on attitudes towards them).
In Russian psychology, four types of memory are distinguished: verbal-logical,
visual-figurative, motor and emotional. Depending on the duration of information
storage, memory can be operational (seconds-minutes), short-term (hours-days),
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long-term (months-years) and permanent. In addition, depending on the memorization technique used, a distinction is made between mechanical (memorizing information in the form in which it is perceived) and logical (memorizing the meaning of
the information received) memory.
The characteristics of human memory include: volume (amount of stored information), speed and accuracy of memorization, duration of information storage,
time for reproduction (recall).
Representations are the process of creating in a person’s mind previously per-
ceived objects and phenomena of the objective world, information about which is
stored in his memory. This is a kind of intermediate link in the dialectical transition
from sensations and perceptions to thinking, realizing the signaling, regulatory and
superstructural functions of the human psyche.
The signaling function is the most important. Thanks to it, any ideas signal
specific phenomena of previously perceived reality. Its distinctive feature is that in
them not only the property (for example, shape), but also all other characteristics of
the object acquire signal significance.
The essence of the regulatory function is the selection of information about an
object or phenomenon that previously influenced the human senses, taking into account the real conditions of the upcoming activity. Thanks to it, exactly the information that is needed at a given time is updated.
The superstructural function of ideas is manifested in the orientation of the activity of the human body towards certain parameters of reflection of the influences of
the surrounding world.
The physiological basis of ideas is the activation of connections between neurons of the cerebral cortex, established during the perception of objects and phenomena, which allows not only to recreate their image, but also to make some changes to
them. This is possible due to the high plasticity of the central nervous system. How-
ever, the surviving “traces” of sensations create only the necessary conditions for
constructing a representation. The image itself with its specific structure arises as a
result of the formation of conditioned temporary connections in the cerebral cortex
due to the functioning of the first signal system, although they can also arise in connection with the second system (the verbal designation of a particular object or phenomenon).
There are quite a few types of representations, however, they can still be classified according to certain criteria. Thus, according to the types of analyzers that are
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involved in them, they distinguish between visual (for example, the image of a person, an object), auditory (representation of a musical melody), olfactory, tactile and
gustatory. However, this identification of them is very conditional — ideas often
arise on the basis of the implementation of the products of the activities of several analyzers.
Also, ideas differ in the degree of generalization. In this regard, they talk about
individual (images of individual objects and phenomena) and general (generalized
images of objects and phenomena) representations. According to the degree of participation in the creation of representations of volitional processes, there are involuntary
representations that arise spontaneously, and voluntary representations in which the
leading role is played by the human will, directing the functioning of the psyche to
achieve a certain goal.
The main characteristics of a person’s ideas are: content, volume, correspond-
ence to reality, effectiveness, brightness, clarity, specificity, generality, activity (the
ability to form the necessary images in the mind at the right moment).
Representations as a mental cognitive process in their functioning realize not
only the products of perception stored in human memory, but also closely interact
with another process that is in many ways similar to it — imagination. Like ideas,
imagination is the process of creating in the mind images of objects and phenomena,
but not previously perceived, but new ones, based on a person’s existing knowledge
and experience. It underlies the forecasting of activity and allows us to assume the
effectiveness of the functioning of newly created objects.
In general, imagination can be considered as a person’s change and transfor-
mation of his ideas using appropriate mental processes. One of them, for example,
allows you to combine in one imagination their individual parts or elements isolated
from various objects and thus create an image that does not exist in the nature of an
object (the sphinx among the ancient Egyptians, the centaur among the Greeks, etc.).
The other makes it possible to mentally strengthen or reduce individual properties
and qualities, giving them disproportionately greater importance in the characteristics
of created images (the courage of a lion or the cowardice of a hare). The third allows
you to create a specific image based on a generalization of features observed in a
number of similar objects (the image of a teacher, student, medical worker, etc.).
As in the process of imagination, the physiological basis of imagination is the
connection between neurons in the cerebral cortex. However, it is formed not on the
basis of perceived material, but with the use of already meaningful experience and
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knowledge. As a result of this complex mental activity, new combinations of temporary connections formed in past experience, which form the basis of imagination images, arise that did not previously have a place in the real process of perception.
The main types of imagination include voluntary (active) imagination, which
manifests itself on the basis of a person’s volitional efforts, and involuntary (passive)
imagination, which arises outside of volitional efforts and often bears signs of fantasy. At the same time, voluntary imagination is divided into two independent subtypes — recreating, which, on the basis of a verbal description, drawing, diagram,
etc., allows you to create previously unperceived objects, and creative, creating completely new images. The types of imagination also include a dream — the formation
of an image of something desired for a person.
The characteristics of imagination are similar to ideas and differ from them only in the connection of the created images with objective reality.
All the mental processes considered work most productively when the entire
consciousness is concentrated on them, performed on the basis of the implementation
of the procedural functions of attention.
Attention is the selective focus of consciousness on specific objects or phenomena of the objective world or subjective processes. Without it, no mental activity
is conceivable. At the same time, in psychology it is customary to link attention primarily with the mental cognitive activity of a person at the elementary (sensations,
perception) and intermediate (idea, imagination) levels. Consequently, it is not a process of reflecting reality, but it represents only one of the mental activity aspects —
its dynamics.
The physiological basis of attention is the formation of persistent foci of excitation in some areas of the cerebral cortex and inhibition in others. As a result, the
functioning of attention is ensured due to a specific phenomenon denoted by the concept of dominant. Its essence lies in the fact that at every moment of mental activity
in the cerebral cortex there is an area with increased nervous excitability, dominant
over the rest. It is as a result of this that a person’s consciousness is concentrated on
certain objects and phenomena. Attention always has an external manifestation: directing the gaze towards the perceived object, holding the breath for some time, the
absence of unnecessary movements, etc.
The following types of attention are distinguished: involuntary (the strength of
the influencing stimulus or its novelty focuses consciousness precisely on its perception), voluntary (arises in accordance with the set goal and a pre-selected object) and
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post-voluntary (at first appears as voluntary, and then under the influence of a per-
son’s positive motivation to the object becomes involuntary). Depending on the pre-
vailing type of mental cognitive activity at a particular moment in time, auditory, visual, etc. attention also appears.
Attention, like any mental process, also has its own characteristics:
- stability — the time during which a person is able to concentrate conscious-
ness on a specific mental activity;
- concentration — the degree of concentration of consciousness on a particular
type of mental activity;
- volume — the number of objects that a person perceives equally clearly at the
same time;
- distribution — a person’s ability to perform equally effectively different
types of mental activity;
- switching — the ability to voluntarily switch from the perception of one ob-
ject or mental activity to another.
Along with mental processes at the elementary and intermediate levels, attention also influences higher mental cognitive activity, represented by thinking. At its
core, thinking is considered as an indirect reflection in the human mind of deep and
significant connections and relationships between objects and phenomena of the objective world.
In the process of thinking, a person reflects the objective world differently than
in the previously discussed processes. If in perception the external phenomena are reflected as they affect the senses (color, shape, direction of movement), then in thinking only the most essential things in them are highlighted (for example, mutual connections and relationships), which is necessary to solve a specific mental problem.
The physiological basis of thinking is the interaction of the first and second
signaling systems in the work of the cerebral cortex. The leading role belongs to the
second signaling system — cortical connections, which provide a reflection of reality
on the basis of words, concepts, categories and corresponding images.
All parts of the cerebral cortex take part in the thinking process. As a result of
their interaction with the brain ends of the analyzers, complex temporary connections
and relationships (associations) are formed. Then they are differentiated, clarified,
consolidated and become a new physiological basis for more accurate knowledge
about the external world. The implementation of these mental actions is ensured by
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systems of functionally united neurons (neural codes) of the brain, which are responsible for performing specific mental operations.
Human thinking has a number of features that distinguish it from other mental
cognitive processes. Firstly, it is indirect in nature, based on the knowledge that a
person already has of the laws of nature, society, etc., and comes from an objective
reflection of the world (but is not reduced to it). In addition, thinking is carried out in
an abstract and generalized form, uses predominantly the verbal form of designating
objects or phenomena, and is organically connected with the practical activities of a
person.
Mental operations include: analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, concretization, generalization and systematization (classification). The forms of thinking
are: concept, judgment (reasoning) and inference, and the methods are induction and
deduction.
In Russian psychological science, it is customary to distinguish four main types
of thinking: visual-effective (thinking directly involved in human activity), figurative
(thinking using visual, auditory and other images of previously perceived objects and
phenomena). No less significant types are also creative (isolating and generalizing in
thinking the most important and essential characteristics of objective reality, as well
as non-existent objects and phenomena) and abstract (the use of abstract concepts that
are not represented in different ways) thinking. Along with the above, we can distinguish types of thinking depending on its content: professional, pedagogical, psychological, etc.
The most important characteristics of thinking are its productivity (the volume
and quality of mental operations performed), mobility (the time required to begin performing the necessary mental operations), and speed (the time it takes to complete a
mental operation). No less important are independence (the degree of independence
of thinking from other factors), purposefulness (the ability to perform the necessary
mental operations), consistency (compliance with the logic of thinking), depth (the
level of knowledge of the objective world in thinking), breadth (the use of information in thinking, located outside the object of thinking) and flexibility (the ability
to move away from standard solutions).
It is generally accepted that the means of thinking are images and verbal designations of objects and phenomena that are subject to mental analysis. The first of
them can significantly increase the productivity of the thinking process (for example,
chess players), but for most people speech is still its leading means.
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Speech is the process of reflecting objective reality in the form of linguistic or
other symbols used in thinking, and their subsequent audio or written reproduction.
Consequently, speech, as a mental process, performs two main functions — designation (in thinking) and communication (when exchanging information with other people through the use of language). It is the property of only man.
The physiological basis of speech is the connection of the corresponding areas
of the cerebral cortex, on the one hand, with thought processes, and on the other, with
the neuro-physiological activity of the sound apparatus.
A more detailed consideration of the physiological foundations of speech requires an understanding of the most complex system of conditioned reflexes. It is
based on the second signaling system, the conditioned stimuli of which are words in
their sound or figurative form. Being initially neutral stimuli, they become conditioned speech stimuli in the process of their repeated combination with primary signals, forming images of specific objects and phenomena in the mind. As a result, they
acquire semantic meaning and become signals of immediate stimuli with which they
were previously combined.
In thinking, as a mental cognitive process, two types of speech are realized:
symbolic (figurative), using signs and images of objects and phenomena of the objective world, and verbal-logical, implementing logical reasoning in mental operations
using words denoting certain objects and phenomena. At the same time, it is believed
that the productivity of sign speech in thinking is many times greater than verballogical speech.
In communication, the types of speech are much more diverse. Here we distinguish: external and internal speech, written and oral, dialogical and monological, contextual and situational, etc.
The quality of speech as a means of thinking is usually judged by its main
characteristics: content (the direction of the thoughts expressed in it) and consistency
(the logic of the use of verbal and figurative designations of objects and phenomena
of the objective and subjective world).
Speech, actively participating in the process of human thinking, simultaneously
acts as an external exponent of the quality of functioning of mental cognitive processes as a whole. However, its characteristics, as well as the characteristics of other
cognitive processes, are significantly influenced by a relatively independent group of
mental processes related to the emotional-volitional sphere of human mental activity,
formed on the basis of mental emotional-volitional processes.
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