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Файл:Psychology and pedagogy. Study aid
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- know the basic functions of the psyche, navigate modern problems of psycho-
logical science;
- have an idea of the role of consciousness and the unconscious in the regula-
tion of behavior;
- have an idea of motivation and mental regulation of behavior and activity;
- know the basics of social psychology, psychology of interpersonal relation-
ships, psychology of large and small groups;
- master the conceptual and categorical apparatus of psychological and peda-
gogical sciences, the tools of psychological and pedagogical analysis and design;
- own a system of knowledge about the field of education, the essence of edu-
cational processes;
- know the objective connections of training, education and personal develop-
ment in educational processes and society;
- master modern educational technologies, methods of organizing educational
and cognitive activities, forms and methods of monitoring the quality of education.
The author is grateful to the students of IRIT and IPTM of the Nizhny Novgorod State Technical University, who made a significant contribution to the revision of
the study aid with their comments and suggestions.
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INTRODUCTION
Evolution and current state of psychology and pedagogy. Psychology: history
of development, concept, objects and subject, main directions and schools, branches
of research. Pedagogy: history of formation, concept, object, subject, tasks, functions,
basic theories and branches.
Scientific positions of domestic psychology and pedagogy. Methodological basis: epistemological, scientific content and methodological levels. General theoretical
basis: reflection of the surrounding reality, regulation of behavior and activity, a person’s awareness of their place in society. Natural science basis: patterns of higher
nervous activity. The relationship between psychology and pedagogy and their place
in the system of sciences.
The professional activity of a modern manager (specialist) includes several relatively independent but interrelated areas. Along with the implementation of his organizational and managerial functions, he also solves the problems of recruiting personnel, improving their qualifications, developing professionally significant personal
characteristics and qualities in employees, creating an atmosphere of corporate coherence, trust and mutual understanding in a professional unit (company, department,
service). In this regard, it is very important for him to master the system of universal
humanities knowledge, one of the leading components of which is psychology and
pedagogy.
I1. EVOLUTION AND CURRENT STATE OF PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY
As you know, any science always has only its inherent attributes of research
development. Its objects are the phenomena that it studies. At the same time, the subject is primarily the patterns of formation, development and manifestation of these
phenomena. At the same time, it is important to note that at various historical stages
of the development of scientific thought, the object and subject of science can change
or be refined. Consequently, before solving the problems of psychological and pedagogical training of managers and specialists of higher educational qualifications for
professional activities, it is necessary to understand the historical and scientific and
theoretical prerequisites for the formation, as well as the essence and content of the
sciences being studied.
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Psychology
Psychology as a science, compared to other systems of scientific knowledge,
has special qualities. Everyone encounters the field of phenomena it studies: it is presented in the form of conscious (sensations, ideas, memory, emotions, etc.) and unconscious (dreams, intuition, etc.) forms of human mental activity, as well as in the
form of interpersonal and intergroup relations. That is why its scientific developments are not so much of theoretical significance as of practical orientation.
Psychology as a science about the human mental world originated in the 6th
century BC in the depths of philosophy. Of course, in its initial form it was far from
perfect and was in constant motion all this time. Its development can be divided into
four stages.
The first stage (VI century BC — XVI century) — psychology is presented in
the form of philosophical discussions about the human soul.
The first ideas about the psyche were mainly associated with animism (Latin
anima — soul), according to which everything living and nonliving has a soul that
exists independently of the body (object) and controls it. However, approaches to understand its nature, even in ancient Greek philosophy alone, differed significantly.
For example, Democritus, recognizing the existence of the soul, believed that it is
material and consists of interconnected atoms, which disintegrate into separate particles after death. In turn, Plato was sure that the soul has nothing to do with matter
and, therefore, is ideal (eternal). In later philosophical treatises of Aristotle, it is already considered as an incorporeal form, acting as the cause and goal of all vital
(mental) functions and extends to all organic processes in which plant, animal and rational souls are distinguished.
In contrast to animism, attempts were made in the ancient world to form the
prerequisites for a materialistic understanding of the nature of the psyche. In this regard, Hippocrates, Erasistratus and others suggested that the brain is the organ of the
psyche. They also developed the doctrine of temperament, according to which a per-
son’s mental properties depend on various forms of mixing material processes (“juices”) in the body.
The second stage (XVII century — first half of the XIX century) — methodological prerequisites for the scientific understanding of the nature and essence of the
psyche and consciousness are formed in philosophy.
Initially, the French philosopher R. Descartes substantiated the idea of dualism
(equal existence and irreducibility to each other) of soul and body. Man, in his opinion, is a connection between a soulless body and a soul with thinking and will. Their
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interaction takes place through a special organ, which makes the soul to desire those
things for which the body is prepared. In his opinion, it is the human soul that forms
his consciousness, and its absence in animals deprives the latter of this mental quality.
Later, the English philosophers J. Locke, D. Hartley and a number of others
within the same period already believed that the human soul, endowed with consciousness, develops over the course of human’s life as a result of the complication of
its primary elements through their association with the outside world. They were the
first to turn the mechanism of association into a universal principle for explaining
mental activity, which became a major contribution to the formation of a materialistic
understanding of the psyche. This allowed the French philosophers P. Holbach,
C. Helvétius and others to develop and substantiate the extremely important idea for
the emerging psychological science of the social determination of the human psyche.
The third stage (second half of the XIX century — beginning of the XX century) — psychology is separated from philosophy into an independent science.
The beginning of the stage was due to the expanding use of experimental
methods for studying mental phenomena and the desire of scientists to introduce
quantitative assessments into their analysis. The first results of a fundamentally new
nature were presented in I.M. Sechenov’s book “Reflexes of the Brain” (1866), which
is considered the beginning of the stage of objective psychology. In 1879, the first
scientific laboratory studying psychophysiological phenomena was created in Leipzig
(Germany). Ten years later, the 1st International Psychological Congress was held in
Paris.
At the same time, to study mental phenomena, foreign researchers widely use
the method of introspection (self-observation), which allowed W. Wundt and
E. Titchener to come to the conclusion that a person is controlled not by the soul, but
by consciousness, which has a special mental causality. At the same time, D. Watson
proposed abandoning the study of consciousness and focusing the main attention of
psychology only on what is accessible to the observation method — on human behavior determined by the totality of stimulus-response connections. Attempts to overcome these and some other contradictions between the scientific views of scientists
led to the formation in foreign psychological science of several independent directions and schools (psychoanalysis, behaviorism, cognitivism, Gestalt psychology,
etc.), often opposed to each other. This is what allows many researchers of the history
of psychology to draw a conclusion about the formation and subsequent deepening of
the crisis in foreign psychological science.
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The fourth stage (from the 20s of the XX century) — the subject of psychology
becomes the patterns and mechanisms of functioning of the human psyche, as well as
group psychological phenomena.
It was in the 20s of the last century that domestic psychology completely
switched to the position of dialectical materialism and began to represent a diversified, applied field of knowledge, serving the interests of practical (primarily pedagogical) activities of people, public institutions and the state as a whole.
The discoveries and developments by Russian scientists I.P. Pavlov and
V.M. Bekhterev of the problems of conditioned reflex connections in the functioning
of the body were of great importance for the development of psychological science.
These discoveries became the basis for the subsequent identification of patterns of
higher nervous activity. At the same time, G.I. Chelpanov, using specially developed
laboratory research methods, began to study the first actual psychological problems — human perception of time and space.
Other domestic scientists also made a significant contribution to the development of psychological science. L.S. Vygotsky developed and introduced into science
the concept of higher mental functions (thinking, memory, speech, attention) as specific, socially conditioned forms of the psyche, and also laid the foundations for the
cultural-historical concept of human mental development. A.N. Leontyev conducted
a series of experimental studies revealing the mechanism of formation of higher mental functions as a process of “growing” (interiorization) of higher forms of instrumen-
tal-sign actions into the subjective structures of the human psyche. A.R. Luria paid
special attention to the problems of cerebral localization of higher mental functions
and their disorders, and therefore is rightfully considered one of the founders of a
new field of psychological science — neuropsychology. P.Ya. Galperin considered
mental processes as the orienting activity of the subject in problem situations. This
conclusion was the basis for the concept of the sequential formation of mental actions, which is still being implemented in the educational process of many domestic
and foreign educational institutions at all levels. A very important contribution to the
development of Russian psychological thought of the XX centurywas made by
B.G. Ananyev, A.A. Bodalev, P.P. Blonsky, B.F. Lomov, A.V. Petrovsky, K.K. Platonov, S.L. Rubinshtein, B.M. Teplov and many others.
The development of the theoretical foundations of Russian psychology during
this stage made it possible to clarify its object and subject, and to form an independent categorical apparatus of science. Research practice began to focus on applied
problems.
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Currently, psychology (Greek psyche — soul, logos — science) is a science
that studies the patterns of the psyche of living beings (people and animals), mental
properties (psychology) of the individual and group psychological phenomena. Consequently, the objects of domestic psychology at present are the system of mental
phenomena of living beings (people and animals), as well as the psychology of large
(social, ethnic, religious, etc.) and small (corporate, industrial, etc.) groups of people1.
If behaviorism opposed behavior to consciousness, then Freudianism contrasted the unconscious (subconscious) psyche. Its founder Z. Freud concluded that all
mental acts are predetermined by the energy of unconscious aspirations, which are
irrational and hostile to consciousness. From his point of view, the phenomena of
consciousness serve for them only as a masking mechanism in the face of the social
environment opposing the individual. Prohibitions on the part of the latter, causing
mental trauma, suppress the energy of unconscious drives, which breaks out along the
bypass paths in the form of neurotic symptoms, dreams, forgetting the unpleasant, etc.
Representatives of Gestalt psychology (German gestalt — image, form)
M. Wertheimer, W. Köhler and others sought to prove that behavior is determined by
integral conscious mental structures (gestalts), which arise and change according to
special laws. These structures were given a universal character. They were considered
organizers of the psyche and behavior at all levels and in all forms. Therefore, like
behaviorists, Gestaltists also do not see qualitative differences between the human
psyche and the animal one.
These and other approaches of the main psychological trends gave rise to attempts to overcome the current situation by integrating ideas and categories that were
developed in various, often opposing, schools and systems. In behaviorism, the con-
cept of “intermediate variables” (E. Tolman) comes to the fore. This direction was
called neobehaviorism and took the path of studying the central physiological processes that unfold between the sensory “input” and the motor “output” of the body
system (K. Hull). This trend is finally winning in 50–60s XX century, in particular,
under the influence of the experience of computer programming.
Freudianism is also undergoing a transformation. Neo-Freudianism emerges —
a movement that connects unconscious mental dynamics with the action of sociocultural factors (K. Horney, G. Sullivan, E. Fromm) and uses psychotherapy not only to
treat neuroses, but also to rid normal people of the feeling of fear of a hostile social
environment.
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In recent years, the objects of psychology have often included factors influencing the functioning of the psyche (primarily in extreme conditions) and the development of the psychology of an individual and a group of people
(developing an individual and a group).
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Along with new variants of behaviorism and Freudianism, humanistic psychology emerged. Its authors K. Rogers, A. Maslow, G. Allport and others argue that the
use of scientific concepts and objective aspects of personality research leads to its dehumanization and disintegration, and impedes its desire for self-development. Consequently, the subject of psychological research must be considered a healthy creative
personality, the goal of which is self-realization, self-actualization and the growth of
the constructive principle of the human “I”.
Representatives of cognitive (Latin cognito — knowledge) psychology also
make a sufficient contribution to the development of world psychological thought. Its
representatives U. Neisser, A. Paivio and others assign a decisive role in human behavior to knowledge. In this regard, the central question for them becomes the organization of knowledge in the subject’s memory, the relationship between verbal and
figurative components in the processes of memorization and thinking. As a result,
cognitive psychology has identified the most important properties inherent in cognitive activity: selectivity, determination by the environment, incompleteness of cognitive schemes, etc.
In recent years, a new direction has emerged in foreign psychological science,
explaining mental phenomena with “mystical experiences”, “cosmic consciousness” — forms of special spiritual experience that require a look at the nature of the
human psyche from non-traditional positions. Most followers of this idea view it as
transpersonal psychology.
The results of scientific research by representatives of the listed and other psychological directions and schools make it possible to constantly expand the field of
theoretical and applied developments. As a result, to date, a number of branches have
been formed in domestic psychology that implement scientific achievements in one
or another area of human activity. Differential psychology studies individual differences between people based on the use of special tests, surveys and other techniques.
Psychophysiology studies the physiological mechanisms that realize mental phenomena and processes.
Medical psychology was originally focused on the practice of psychotherapy.
Subsequently, it differentiated into medical psychology itself, covering issues of psychotherapy and mental hygiene. At the same time, pathopsychology studies the psyche of mentally ill people both for theoretical purposes and in the interests of therapeutic psychiatric practice, and neuropsychology solves the problem of localizing a
physical defect in focal brain lesions and restoring impaired mental functions.
The development of industrial production confronted psychology with the task
of studying labor processes in order to increase efficiency by rationalizing motor op-
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erations, adapting tools and machines to human capabilities, and conducting professional selection. In this regard, work psychology emerged as an independent branch.
In the context of production automation, the perception and processing of information, decision making and other complex mental processes have come to the fore.
Special studies required the distribution of functions between the human operator and
the machine and their coordination, which served as the basis for the formulation of
engineering psychology.
Social psychology has become one of the most important branches of psychology in recent years. It studies human activity in teams — work, educational, etc., having both a formal and informal nature, as well as their different internal structures. Its
subject also includes issues of the formation of interpersonal relationships in a corporate group, differentiation of functions (roles) in it, issues of psychological compatibility of participants in group activities and its management.
Personality psychology acts as a special branch, integrating the results of scientific research of the above-mentioned and many other fields. At the junction of some
of these areas, new areas are being formed, the most promising of which include the
psychology of the service sector of society (service psychology).
The results of scientific research in various branches of psychology find their
application not only in the professional activities of practicing psychologists. Today
they are of interest to specialists in a number of other fields of science. This is most
clearly manifested in the system of pedagogical knowledge.
Pedagogy
Unlike psychology, pedagogy initially appeared in the form of practical activity. With the division of labor in primitive society, the need for the transfer of labor
experience, the formation of loyalty to the interests of the clan, tribe, etc. arose. Then
the activity that is now called pedagogy appears. However, at that time it was nonsystemic in nature, carried out within the framework of the so-called “folk peda-
gogy”, and subsequently for a long time it was considered as the science of raising
children. In its subsequent development, several relatively independent stages can be
distinguished, filled with their own content.
The first stage (VI century BC — XV century) is the formation of empirical
pedagogy (pre-pedagogy).
At this time the tasks of transferring social experience to the younger generation in the form of their education and upbringing began to be solved. At first the beginnings of this process appeared in the countries of the Ancient East (India, China,
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Assyria, Babylon, etc.). They reached their true peak in Greece
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and Rome. The most
prominent thinker of that time, Democritus (460–370 BC), was one of the first to set
out in his works his own views on teaching and raising children. Issues of pedagogy
were also considered by Socrates (469–399 BC), Plato (427–347 BC) and Aristotle
(384–322 BC), who developed the most important provisions related to human upbringing. A unique result of the development of ancient pedagogical thought was the
treatise of the Roman philosopher and teacher Quintilian “On the Education of the
Orator.” During the same period, schools of Athenian and Spartan education, Greek
culture, monastery, cathedral and city schools, systems of Jesuit and Christian education were created.
During that time frame in China the concept of an ideal, that person is formed
not by origin, but by education is formed; the study of morality, language, politics
and literature was included in education. Arab and Iranian thinkers at this time sought
to increase the overall value of education, emphasized the importance of systematic
and constant learning, the need for comprehensive physical and spiritual development
of people, the formation in them of such qualities as respect for elders, justice, politeness, and courage.
The second stage (XV–XVI centuries) is the creation of theoretical prerequisites for pedagogical science.
During the Middle Ages, the church monopolized the spiritual life of society,
directing education in a religious direction. Squeezed in the grip of theology, education has largely lost the freedom and progressive orientation of ancient times. Even
extensive treatises on the upbringing and spiritual education of famous church figures, philosophers Tertullian, Augustine, theologian F. Aquinas, and others, largely
remained unclaimed.
However, during this period, representatives of the Jesuit order formed the first
ideas for a comprehensive school. Its founder I. Loyola (1491–1556) in 1522 wrote
the book “Spiritual Exercises”, in which he outlined the foundations and principles of
the functioning of the new (free, universal and mass) school. The standard Jesuit programs already regulated the entire educational process: how and what to talk about,
how to resolve certain controversial issues, how to teach geography or foreign languages, etc. For the first time, textbooks written by the Jesuits began to be used in
their schools. in a typographical way.
The Renaissance (XIV–XVI centuries) filled pedagogy with the ideas of humanism. This can be seen from the works of Italian scientists P. Vergerio (1350–
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In Ancient Greece people who accompanied (drove) children to school and helped them in their studies began
to be called “paidagogos” (Greek paidos — child, “ago” — I lead, educate). After some transformation, it acquired a
modern sound and pedagogs (teachers) are now people who solve the problems of teaching and upbringing.
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1444), L. Bruni (1370–1444), S. Piccolomini (1405–1464). The whole course of pedagogy is set out in six books “On the education of children and their good morals” by
M. Veggio (1406–1458). The ideas of humanism were preached by the German
teacher R. Agricola (1443–1485). The most prominent representatives of French pedagogical thought of this time were F. Rabelais (1494–1553) and M. Montaigne
(1553–1592).
The third stage (XVII–XIX centuries) is the formation of pedagogy into an in-
dependent science.
The beginning of the stage at the beginning of the 17th century in the developed countries of that time is associated with the appearance of classical schools
proving secondary and then higher education. Training and education acquires a systematic character and receives the first theoretical developments in relevant methods.
The great Czech humanist J.A. Komenius (1592–1670) is considered the
founder of scientific pedagogy. His work “The Great Didactics” (1638) is the first
scientific and pedagogical book that has reached us. The principles, methods and
forms of teaching proposed by the author are still included in the “golden fund” of
world pedagogical thought.
Progressive views on training and education were subsequently developed by
the French educators D. Diderot (1713–1784), C. Helvetius (1715–1771), P. Holbach
(1723–1789), J.J. Rousseau (1712–1778). Their basic ideas largely predetermined the
work of the Swiss teacher I.G. Pestalozzi, who was the first to put forward the idea of
developmental education. A major but controversial figure in pedagogy of that time
was the German philosopher I. Herbart (1776–1841), who, along with significant
progressive developments in teaching problems (educational teaching, developmental
exercises), advocated the authoritarianism of pedagogy. At the same time, another
German teacher A. Diesterweg (1790–1866) fruitfully explores the contradictions inherent in the entire pedagogical process.
During theis period the pedagogical activities and scientific works of many of
our compatriots received worldwide recognition. These include S. Polotsky,
M.V. Lomonosov, L.N. Tolstoy, N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.I. Pirogov and others. The results of other scientific studies were summarized by
K.D. Ushinsky (1824–1870) and set out in his world-famous work “Man as a Subject
of Education. Experience of pedagogical anthropology” (1869).
The fourth stage (XX century) — pedagogy is the theoretical and practical basis for teaching and educating people.
The first intensive scientific research into pedagogical problems began in the
USA, where by the beginning of the 20th century the center of world pedagogical
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