Добавил:
ivanov666
Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Предмет:
Файл:Psychology and pedagogy. Study aid
.pdf
21
thought gradually shifted. The most prominent representatives of American pedagogy
are D. Dewey (1859–1952), E. Thorndike (1847–1949), B. Spock (1903–1998). Their
research into teaching and upbringing, which made it possible to create although
pragmatic but effective teaching technologies, and raised the question of the authoritarian or humanistic nature of education, had a noticeable impact on the development
of Western pedagogy. Currently, foreign pedagogy is an applied field of knowledge
that deals primarily with the problems of training narrow specialists (for example,
managers).
An invaluable contribution to the development of world pedagogical thought
within this time frame was made by Russian teachers of the Soviet period
A.S. Makarenko (1888–1939), P.P. Blonsky (1884–1941), S.T. Shatsky (1876–1936),
V.A. Sukhomlinsky (1918–1970), who continued the study of theoretical and applied
pedagogical problems, and also significantly expanded the scope of their research.
The works of Yu.K. Babansky, V.P. Bespalko, I.Ya. Lerner, N.D. Nikandrov,
M.N. Skatkin and other prominent scientists also received worldwide fame and
recognition. As a result, in the 80s of XX century a whole galaxy of practicing teachers appears, later called innovative teachers (Sh.A. Amonashvili, V.F. Shatalov, etc.).
Their consideration of the student (educated) not as an object of pedagogical influence, but as a subject of joint pedagogical activity, formed the prerequisites for the
further humanization of pedagogical relations.
At the beginning of this century, the vector of pedagogical research is aimed at
a unique orientation of training and education in the sphere of interests of a specific
individual, society, and state. Currently, this is considered as the beginning of domestic pedagogical research in a new direction and, therefore, may become the beginning
of the next stage in the history of domestic pedagogy.
All previous developments of pedagogy allowed it to form as an independent
branch of human knowledge in the 20th century. Currently, pedagogy is the science
of upbringing, teaching, educating and developing the individuals and the groups and
unite them (classes, groups, etc.). Its internal structure consists of two components:
the theory and practice of education and the theory and practice of teaching (didactics). As a result, the objects of pedagogy are the processes of training, education and
development of the younger generation and adults, and the subject is the patterns that
appear (operate) in them.
As in psychology, in pedagogy a fairly wide range of theories and approaches
has now been formed.
The foundation of pedagogical theories is based on psychological ideas about
the nature of man (his education, learning ability, maturation, growth, development),
22
as well as various groups of people (professional, ethnic, etc.). This fundamental
knowledge about man and society is the basis for resolving the issue of the nature of
upbringing, training, and education. Finally, from knowledge about the essence of
upbringing and educational processes, statements are formed about the mechanisms
of formation of pedagogical knowledge. Depending on the method of solving these
problems in pedagogy, there are several relatively independent pedagogical theories
with different levels of prevalence, which can be conditionally combined into several
groups.
Through experience, over the course of many centuries, means and methods of
education and training were accumulated, which were preserved in folk pedagogy
and later partially entered scientific pedagogy. The pinnacle of her art in the ancient
world is considered to be the work of Confucius and Socrates.
Structuralist theories go back to the ideas of Pythagoras, who considered harmony one of the fundamental principles of everything that exists and extended this
idea to man. In their modern form, they were developed by representatives of Gestalt
psychology, J. Piaget, N. Chomsky and their followers. They are based on the category of experience that has the properties of structured integrity. Education and upbringing are a prerequisite for acquiring such experience.
Sensualist theories originated in Europe (Aristotle, Quintilian) and are based on
the fact that the ability to educate is given to a person from birth. However, not everyone can give education, but only those who are familiar with the necessary techniques for this, as well as with the conditions of the child’s mental life. School education should be preferred to family education, since only at school can social feelings
develop. In addition, Aristotle already distinguished between physical, moral and
mental education, and therefore pointed to the educational significance of grammar,
rhetoric, dialectics, mathematics, graphics (drawing) and politics (in the modern system of knowledge — political science and sociology).
The Thomistic approach in the views of F. Aquinas synthesized reason and
faith, philosophy and theology, activity and contemplation. For him, the most important subject of the pedagogical process was the student, whose goal was to acquire
the ability to self-educate. Intellectually independent, he must manage his own research and discoveries. However, the modern Roman Catholic Church most often
places the student under the strict guidance of a teacher.
Humanistic theories are based on the antique educational ideals. To educate a
person for life in society, with a healthy mind and body — is its main task. Many
humanists of that time attached primary importance to the structure of school education and upbringing. A number of their valuable works were devoted to the education
23
of princes and princely children. Humanistic pedagogy experienced a new rise at the
beginning of the 20th century. In modern pedagogy, the humanistic approach is based
on the ideas of psychologists A. Maslow, K. Rogers and students of their school.
The foundations of apperceptive theories are set out in the works of J. Locke,
developed by I. Herbart and experimentally substantiated by J. Piaget. In their opinion, learning is based on the association of new ideas and existing elements of human
experience. This presupposes both the intellectual leadership of the teacher and the
spontaneous creative activity of students.
Behaviorist theory is represented by the works of B.F. Skinner, which emphasize the possibility and necessity of managing socially positive human behavior with
the help of a scientifically organized pedagogical process. Hence — programmed
training and an operationally defined systematization of the goals of the pedagogical
process.
The pedocentric approach is based on the ideas of Socrates, who believed that
virtue is knowledge and that therefore it can and should be learned. For this purpose,
he created a special teaching method, which still bears his name, and involves the
teacher “guiding” the student to the necessary thought. In this regard, counseling and
assistance in a person’s self-development become the main functions of a teacher.
Cognitive theories of learning (problem-based learning) are set out in the
works of J. Piaget and his followers. They involve developing students’ interest in
new knowledge, presenting educational material, formulating a hypothesis, and selecting the necessary ideas (concepts) to confirm and explain it. This algorithm develops the intellectual sphere of students. In the Russian Federation, problem-based
learning technologies are developed by M.N. Skatkin, I.Ya. Lerner and their followers.
The existentialist approach is represented by models of the pedagogical process
of S. Kierkegaard, M. Buber, N.I. Pirogov and others, based on an understanding of
the process of choice and human decision-making. For his self-determination as a
unique personality, it is necessary to establish relationships between a growing per-
son and other “I”s and with “You” (God). Proponents of the approach believe that the
main thing in the pedagogical process is the dialogue of the individual with the world,
during which he grows and his responsibility for himself and for the world is
strengthened.
An analysis of the main modern domestic pedagogical theories shows that the
considered approaches are, to one degree or another, reflected in each of them. At the
same time, their scientific results are implemented in various branches of pedagogy.
At the same time, branches (sections) of pedagogy are distinguished according to individual aspects of pedagogical research and the pedagogical process. Pedagogical
24
methodology studies the methods, techniques and techniques of pedagogical research.
The stages and trends in the development of pedagogical theories and ideas, as well
as educational systems, are explored by the history of pedagogy. Since teachings and
ideas are the products of human activity, it also studies the activities of specific
teachers. Comparative pedagogy deals with the study, analysis and generalization of
experience in education and the development of pedagogical science in various countries.
The categorical structure of pedagogy and its most general laws and patterns,
independent of the age and other characteristics of students and pupils, are determined by general pedagogy. The theory of education studies the specially organized
educational process in general and in the areas of educational work. Didactics (learning theory) studies the laws of education and training, mainly teaching and mastering
knowledge, the formation of skills, as well as the educational possibilities of various
types of educational activities.
In addition to the named industries (sections), others are sometimes distinguished, partially covering traditional areas. Thus, pedagogical science is considered
as a theory of the construction of pedagogical science and its categorical design. The
prospects for the development of pedagogy as a science and education as a system are
studied by pedagogical forecasting.
Another basis for distinguishing branches of pedagogy is the levels (stages) of
the education system. Then preschool pedagogy, pedagogy of primary, secondary and
higher schools, pedagogy of adult education, etc. are distinguished. At the same time,
the unity of the bases of division is not always maintained as a logical requirement
for any classification. As a result, for example, professional pedagogy can receive a
more detailed division according to the professions themselves (military, engineering,
medical, etc.).
As branches of pedagogical knowledge, the sciences of education and training
of abnormal children and persons who have become disabled are developing. Among
these branches are defectology and its components, which in modern Russia are
called correctional pedagogy. This area covers oligophrenopedagogy (education of
children with mental disabilities), deaf pedagogy (education of the deaf and hard of
hearing), typhlopedagogy (education of the blind and visually impaired), and speech
therapy (overcoming speech disorders).
Differential integration processes, which have distinguished a variety of
branches both in psychology and in pedagogy, are determined by the demands of various spheres of human practice, confronting it with problems specific to each of them.
They are, as a rule, complex and therefore are developed by many sciences. This
25
connection is most effectively manifested in the system of psychological and pedagogical knowledge. However, in this regard, the problem of a unified scientific approach to the development and substantiation of practical recommendations arises.
Currently, it is being resolved based on the use of general scientific positions.
I2. Scientific positions of domestic psychology and pedagogy
As is known, each science, in order to develop productively and formulate appropriate theoretical conclusions and practical recommendations, must rely on appropriate starting points that provide objective ideas about the objects it studies. In psychology and pedagogy, the role of such provisions is played by methodological, general theoretical and natural scientific foundations.
Methodological basis
The methodological basis of most areas of modern Russian psychology and
pedagogy is dialectical materialism. Based on its basic provisions, they apply its
laws, principles and categories to the analysis of psychological and pedagogical problems, identify natural connections between phenomena and develop specific methods
for their knowledge, taking into account the changes that occur. The structure of the
methodological basis of the sciences under consideration is hierarchical, which makes
it possible to present it in the form of three interconnected levels: epistemological,
scientific content and methodological3.
The first level is epistemological (cognitive). Its content consists of a materialistic solution to the main question of philosophy (what comes first — consciousness
or matter and whether the world is knowable), laws (the unity and struggle of opposites, the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, the negation of negation), categories (phenomena and essence, form and content, possibility and reality,
cause and effect, necessity and chance, general, special and individual) and principles
(objectivity and comprehensiveness of analysis, development, unity of theory and
practice, concreteness of truth) of materialist dialectics. The ideas that collectively
make up this level of methodology guide the cognitive (research) and practical activities of specialists in psychology and pedagogy.
The second level is scientific and content. Its basis is formed by the corresponding patterns and principles. They were identified and substantiated by research-
3
In a number of textbooks, the methodological basis of psychology and pedagogy is discussed in the form of
general, special and specific methodology.
26
ers of problems of psychology and pedagogy as a result of long-term scientific
searches and reflect significant connections that appear within psychological phenomena and the pedagogical process as a whole.
The third level is methodical. Its content consists of knowledge about methods
of psychological and pedagogical research. It should be taken into account that the
methods of psychology and pedagogy are a set of methods and techniques for studying the content and main characteristics of psychological and pedagogical phenomena
of an individual and a group of people. According to the content and conditions of
implementation, methods for studying psychological and pedagogical problems within the framework of psychology and pedagogy can be conditionally combined into
three independent groups: universal, general and particular.
The universal method represents the methodological basis for understanding
the essence and content of psychological and pedagogical phenomena and is based on
the basic laws of materialist dialectics. The main feature of the method is that it is
used in all sciences without exception, but it provides researchers with very rough information about the phenomenon being studied (orients them in the problem), which
requires further clarification.
General methods are considered as methods of studying psychological and
pedagogical phenomena, used in a number of sciences, the object of which is a person or a team (group of people). Psychology and pedagogy use a fairly wide range of
research methods for this group, the most used of which primarily include:
1. An observation method that involves studying the patterns of psychological
and pedagogical phenomena based on an analysis of their external manifestations in
natural conditions.
2. The experimental method, which, in contrast to observation, involves the
study of psychological and pedagogical phenomena and based on the analysis of their
external manifestation in specially created conditions in which the studied phenomenon (pattern) must necessarily manifest itself.
3. The method of diagnostic conversation (interview) is a study of psychological and pedagogical phenomena based on an analysis of the content of oral responses
to a specific list of questions asked to the participant(s) of psychological research or
the pedagogical process.
4. The survey method, just like a conversation, makes it possible to study psy-
chological and pedagogical processes based on the analysis of respondents’ answers
to a pre-compiled list of questions. However, both the questions themselves and the
answers are presented in writing.
27
5. The method of analyzing performance results involves the study of psychological and pedagogical phenomena based on an analysis of the volume (productivity)
and quality of educational, professional and other tasks solved by the subjects or
groups under study.
6. The method of document analysis makes it possible to study psychological
and pedagogical phenomena based on studying the content of documents (characteristics, diplomas, acts, protocols, etc.) relating to the objects and subjects of the pedagogical process under study.
7. The method of independent characteristics involves the study of psychological and pedagogical phenomena based on the analysis of their assessment by other
objects and subjects of the pedagogical process. If they include specialists in this
field, then the method is called the expert assessment method.
8. The biographical method makes it possible to study psychological and pedagogical phenomena based on an analysis of a person’s life path, the previous conditions of his training, upbringing and psychological development.
In addition, the group under consideration includes methods of iconography,
graphology, physiognomy, etc.
Private methods are research methods used only in a specific science — psychology or pedagogy. These include testing methods, surveys, modeling and some
others. At the same time, it should be taken into account that the essence of the first
two is often mistakenly presented as identical. At the same time, they are fundamentally different. Thus, if testing involves the study of psychological and pedagogical
phenomena based on an analysis of the ratio of correct and incorrect answers to certain questions (the test always has one or more correct answers), then the survey is
based on an analysis of the choice made by the student from the proposed answer options. Consequently, for each of the respondents, the correct option may differ from
the choices made by other individuals.
The methodological foundations of Russian psychology and pedagogy form the
foundation of the sciences and ensure their independent functioning. However, the
results of the study and the content of practical recommendations will be more accurate if they take into account the peculiarities of the activity of the object of psychological and pedagogical research: a child, an adult, a team (small group) of an educational, scientific, production, etc. unit. These provisions are reflected in the general
theoretical foundations of modern psychology and pedagogy.
28
General theoretical basis
According to the considered methodology, the psyche performs certain functions: reflecting the influence of the environment (including the socio-pedagogical)
environment, regulating the behavior and activities of people, and their awareness of
their place in the world around them. However, it should be noted that domestic psychology and pedagogy have their own scientific and theoretical views on the emergence and development of the material world, as well as the emergence and improvement of mental phenomena in it.
First of all, it is recognized that the creation of the material world is based on
various types of movement. In this regard, it is believed that the primary basis for the
formation of the Universe was the movement of elementary particles (microparticles): protons, neurons, electrons, etc. Quantitative changes in their interaction gradually led to the emergence of new particles (atoms) endowed with fundamentally different qualitative characteristics. This is how physical movement arose — a more
complex form, during which quantitative changes in the world of atoms led to the
emergence of molecules of various substances with new qualitative features (for example, two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen formed a water molecule). As a result of
this, chemical movement appeared in the surrounding world, which included the
movement and transformation of molecules, accompanied by complex chemical processes.
With the further development of the material world, chemical compounds become more complex and diverse, which leads to the emergence of a new form — organic movement, which served as a prerequisite for the formation and consistent development of living organisms. In the course of its constant improvement, living nature created various types of animals endowed with a nervous system, which became
the material basis for the formation and functioning of the psyche (mental movement), which can be considered as its specific product. Further development of the
nervous system led to the formation of the highest level of mental movement — consciousness, which evolution endowed only with humans.
Simultaneously with the development and comprehensive improvement of consciousness, the highest form of movement for the present time arises — social life,
which is already characterized by the laws of economic, political, social, etc. development of society and earthly civilization as a whole.
Along with the presented types of movement of matter, various forms of its reflection also appear: physical, physiological and mental.
29
The simplest form of reflection is physical reflection, which allows one to reproduce only the initial types of motion of matter — elementary, physical and chemical. At their last stage, elementary sensitivity arose, manifesting itself in the simplest
organisms in the form of adaptation to the environment based on their inherent property of irritability.
A more complex form of reflection is physiological (organic) reflection. It is
believed that at its lowest stage the simplest reflex activity of living organisms was
formed. Moreover, the reflection itself is a rather complex reaction to various environmental influences (stimuli). At the highest stage of this form of reflection, complex conditioned reflexes of animals were formed, allowing them to carry out specific
actions.
The most complex and most developed form of reflection of the objective
world is mental reflection. The theoretical developments completed to date show that
it has its own specific features. Firstly, this is not just a mirror (one-sided) reflection,
but a constantly developing and improving process that creates and overcomes its
contradictions. Secondly, in the course of mental reflection of objective reality, any
external influence is always refracted through previously established characteristics
of the psyche, through specific states of a person. Thirdly, it allows for subjective recording of the objective impact of environmental factors (objects and phenomena of
the objective world) on human consciousness.
It should be taken into account that the subjectivity of mental reflection, which
represents an active transformation of what is reflected, in no way denies the possibility of an objective reflection of the surrounding world. In real life, a person, with the
help of the psyche, reflecting the impact of objective reality, records and comprehends it, forming in his consciousness a picture of the world that is close to the real
one, in accordance with which he acts. Mental processes (cognitive and emotionalvolitional), education and properties of people, having a certain flexibility, allow
them to adapt to the prevailing conditions of life and activity, transform them in accordance with their needs and interests.
At the same time, mental reflection, acting as a component of a person’s con-
sciousness, not only allows him to adapt to the world around him, but also to control
his own behavior and activities. As a result, the regulation of people's behavior and
activities cannot be carried out outside the world of their mental phenomena. This is
explained by the fact that it is with the help of the psyche that a person realizes his
needs, formulates motives, sets personally significant goals, and also defines tasks,
develops (selects) means and techniques to achieve them. Behavior in this case is on-
30
ly the external side of the manifestation of the psyche, which is largely predetermined
by the following general theoretical position of psychology and pedagogy.
A person’s awareness of his place in the world around him. This function of
the psyche, on the one hand, ensures a person’s correct orientation in the objective
world, ensuring effective comprehension of all its realities and an adequate attitude
towards them. On the other hand, with the help of the mental component of consciousness, a person realizes himself as a person endowed with certain individual and
socio-psychological characteristics, a representative of a specific community and social group, different from other people and in unique interpersonal relationships with
them. A person’s full awareness of his personal characteristics at the same time helps
him adapt to other people, properly build communication and interaction with them,
achieve common goals in joint activities, and maintain harmony in the community
and the social group as a whole.
Natural science basis
The natural scientific foundations of psychology and pedagogy are formed on
the results of research in the fields of psychophysiology, medicine, biology and a
number of other sciences. They reveal the features of nervous structures and centers,
the functioning of which is associated with mental processes and human behavior, as
well as the physiological mechanisms of his cognitive activity. In a generalized form,
they can be presented as fundamental provisions that reveal the patterns of higher
nervous activity (HNA).
It is now known that at the basis of higher nervous activity there are two processes in constantly changing relationships: excitation and inhibition. Their functioning is initiated by the influence of the external or internal environment, which is
caused by irritation.
Excitation is the process of a neuron releasing its own energy in response to external or internal stimulation, leading to the spread of impulse activity in the nervous
system. In a neuron in a state of excitation, the balance of internal electrochemical
processes is disturbed, which leads to its active response to the influence of the external environment in the form of influence on neighboring cells.
Inhibition is also considered as an active process, but already aimed at stopping
or complicating the excitation process. In a neuron that is in a state of inhibition, the
balance of the electrochemical processes occurring in it is restored.
The processes of excitation and inhibition proceed in accordance with certain
patterns, which include the phenomena of irradiation, concentration and induction.
Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]