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Файл:Psychology and pedagogy. Study aid
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The tips listed above will help you win over your subordinate. It is important to
try to create in him a desire to participate in solving your official or professional
problems. The following technology can be used for this:
- first show your interlocutor your friendly attitude towards them;
- show respect for the opinion of your interlocutor, never immediately tell them
that they are wrong, it is better to help him come to this assessment himself;
- try to make your interlocutor talk more than you;
- honestly try to understand the point of view of the interlocutor, show sympa-
thy for their thoughts and desires;
- appeal to noble motives, make your ideas visual, stage them.
After the conversation, it is advisable to analyze it, draw conclusions and
outline directions for further work. This allows you to accumulate and generalize the
obtained facts about the subordinate and more actively use the knowledge of their
individual psychological characteristics in the process of subsequent work with them.
The next method of studying the psychological characteristics of a
subordinate’s personality, recommended for manager, is the method of analyzing
performance results. At its core, it is a study of the individual psychological
characteristics of a co-worker’s personality based on an assessment of the quality of
the professional activity he performs. This method involves the manager taking into
account the actions and deeds of subordinates, achievements and shortcomings in the
performance of official duties, which makes it possible to draw a conclusion about
the characteristics of the personality of a particular person, their character, the level
of formation of their life position, etc.
Also applicable in the activities of a manager is the method of document
analysis, the essence of which is to study the individual characteristics of a
subordinate’s personality based on an analysis of the content and conclusions
regarding their documents. These include: documents on education and professional
training, retraining and advanced training; letters of recommendation, etc. The study
of the listed documents allows us to identify some character traits, interests,
inclinations, level of performance and other indicators, the appearance of which is
based on the psychological characteristics of the subordinate’s personality.
In addition to the methods outlined above for studying individual personality
characteristics, a number of others have been developed and used in psychological
and pedagogical science. Among them the most applicable:
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1) the experimental method involves the study of individual psychological
characteristics of a person based on an analysis of their external manifestation in
specially created conditions in which, in the opinion of the manager, the necessary
quality will certainly manifest itself;
2) questionnaire method — the study of the individual psychological charac-
teristics of a subordinate’s personality based on an analysis of the content of the writ-
ten answers they give to a pre-prepared list of questions;
3) the method of independent characteristics involves the study of a person’s personal characteristics based on the analysis of the evaluative judgments of
other persons about them. If an opinion about the personal characteristics of an
employee is expressed by experts in the field of psychology and pedagogy, then this
method is called the method of expert assessments;
4) biographical method, the essence of which is to study the individual characteristics of a person based on an analysis of the socio-psychological conditions of
their previous personal development.
It should be taken into account that the use of the considered psychological and
pedagogical methods of studying personality provides the manager with sufficiently
voluminous material to form a conclusion about the psychological characteristics and
capabilities of the subordinates. However, each of them separately does not provide
complete objectivity of the results. This indicator can only increase if they are used
comprehensively (jointly).
Another condition for increasing the reliability of the results of studying a
subordinate is the use of methods listed in the third group — special (private)
methods. They are mainly used by professional psychologists within one of the
branches of psychology — psychological diagnostics (psychodiagnostics).
The concept and possibilities of psychodiagnostics
In modern psychological literature, psychodiagnostics is considered as a
branch of psychology that develops methods for identifying, recognizing and
measuring individual psychological characteristics of a person. It dates back to the
end of the 19th century, when the idea of quantitative measurement of certain
indicators of a person’s mental activity and their psychological sphere appeared in
psychology, quickly spread and began to be implemented. Its results made it possible
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to measure a specific personal quality of a person and, on this basis, make an
appropriate psychological diagnosis — a structured description of a complex of
interrelated mental phenomena in the personal sphere of a person — mental
processes, formations and personality traits. In this case, the diagnosis can be
accompanied by recommendations for the development or correction of the qualities
being studied and intended not only for specialists (teachers, practical psychologists,
recruitment managers, etc.), but also for the subjects themselves.
The main functions of psychodiagnostics in the system of modern education
and professional activity are monitoring the formation of the necessary knowledge
and professionally important personal properties and qualities of students and
employees, assessing the characteristics of their mental, intellectual, professional and
other types of development. In recent years, its capabilities have been increasingly
used in the selection of applicants to certain vocational education institutions, as well
as in the interests of increasing the efficiency of professional selection of personnel in
institutions and companies of various levels and areas of activity. The success of
students’ educational activities primarily depends on both the level of their
intellectual development and special abilities required to master a given profession,
and on the characteristics of their personal sphere (direction, psychophysiological
characteristics, accentuation of certain character traits etc.). Psychodiagnostics of
these and other psychological characteristics of young people allows not only to more
accurately select applicants, but also to carry out the necessary correction of the
educational process, taking into account their individual psychological development.
One of the most important goals of psychodiagnostics is to ensure the full
mental and personal development of a person. Of course, it strives to achieve this
using methods available to it, allowing psychodiagnostics to provide assistance in
personality development, overcoming emerging mental and (or) psychological
difficulties, etc. As a result, another important task of psychodiagnostics is to create
conditions for carrying out targeted correctional and developmental work, developing
recommendations, conducting psychotherapeutic activities, etc. Its main function in
recent years has been the determination of the conditions most conducive to the
further personal development of a particular person, formulating recommendations
for the development of training, education and development programs for people that
take into account the uniqueness of their personal sphere.
At the same time, it is necessary to understand that the possibilities of
psychodiagnostics are realized primarily in the interests of making a forecast of
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personal development. This problem is solved on the basis of identifying a number of
signs of a certain property that is the cause of a particular behavior or misdemeanor
of a person, and predicting their repetition in the future in the form of so-called
“criteria behavior.” However, successful prediction is possible only when it is the
measured mental property that is the cause of this criterion behavior.
In psychodiagnostics, psychodiagnostic signs, categories and conclusions are
distinguished. It is noted that psychodiagnostic signs can be directly observed and
recorded (for example, specific actions of people). At the same time,
psychodiagnostic categories represent hidden internal psychological factors
(psychological reasons), which determine certain behavior and characteristics of a
person. As a result, the difficulty of formulating a psychodiagnostic conclusion
(psychological diagnosis) lies in the fact that there are often no strict one-to-one
relationships between signs and categories. As a result, technological methods for
obtaining primary psychodiagnostic signs and the logical rules for their synthesis into
diagnostic categories are considered the main subject and product of the development
of psychodiagnostics. The basic principles and mathematized technology for creating
standardized measurement psychodiagnostic techniques are developed in
psychometrics.
To diagnose intellectual development, special abilities, professionally
significant properties and other elements of a person’s personal sphere, a rich arsenal
of psychodiagnostic techniques is required, each of which has corresponding types
and forms.
Types and forms of psychodiagnostic techniques
Private (special) methods of psychodiagnostics, implemented in the form of
appropriate psychodiagnostic techniques, are tied to solving a narrow class of
practical problems and are aimed at diagnosing well-defined personal properties and
qualities. In this regard, this group includes standardized and clinical methods. It is
believed that standardized methods are more effective when it is necessary to obtain
information about a whole group of people in a short time and at the same time make
a strictly alternative decision that requires a quantitative justification of its reliability.
They are better protected from possible errors that arise due to the low
psychodiagnostic qualifications of the performer.
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In turn, clinical methods are more effective when used by experienced
professional psychologists (specialists from professional selection groups, personnel
selection, etc.). They allow you to penetrate deeper and more accurately into the
characteristics of the personal sphere of a particular person, but they require quite a
lot of time to work with him individually. In addition, practitioners of
psychodiagnostics note that they are even more effective if, based on their results, the
diagnostic psychologist himself conducts appropriate psychological correction,
psychotherapy or training with a specific subject.
In psychodiagnostics, it is also customary to distinguish methods according to
the degree of their formalization. On this basis, they are all combined into two
groups — low-formalized and highly formalized. The first includes methods that
implement the capabilities of general methods for diagnosing the psychological
sphere of a person — observation, diagnostic conversation, analysis of performance
results, etc. Their use requires high psycho-diagnostic qualifications and professional
experience of a manager (specialist), since they often do not have standards for
studying and interpreting the results obtained.
Methods of a high level of formalization (highly formalized) include various
types of testing and survey methods. They are distinguished by a number of
characteristics such as strict regulation of the examination procedure (uniformity of
instructions and timing), processing and interpretation of results (the presence of
strictly defined evaluation criteria, norms, standards, etc.), and fairly high reliability.
The diagnostic procedure itself is structured in such a way that no subject has an
advantage over others (lack of individual explanations, change in time to solve the
proposed problem, etc.).
Of all the highly formalized methods that exist today, the most common are
test methods, which are based on the procedure of the testing method, which
involves solving a standardized (always having one or more correct answers) task in
order to determine the quantitative (sometimes qualitative) characteristics of
psychological characteristics of personality according to certain parameters.
According to their content, they are summarized in several groups: intelligence tests;
aptitude tests; achievement tests; personality tests. With their help, it is possible to
fairly objectively assess (diagnose) the level of development of all personal
characteristics of a person belonging to the group of mental processes and formations.
To assess the level of development of a person’s mental properties in
psychodiagnostics, survey techniques are predominantly used that implement the
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capabilities of the survey method to study the psychological characteristics of a
person’s personal sphere based on an analysis of the choice they made to answer a
specific question from the proposed options.
In practical psychodiagnostics, methods are often used that include both survey
and test tasks. In this case, they can rightfully be called test-survey methods.
The projective techniques used in psychodiagnostics are based on the
interpretation of a person’s answers to seemingly neutral questions, reactions to
situations that allow for a multiplicity of possible interpretations when perceived by
the subjects. It is based on them that a psychodiagnostician assesses the deep essence
and mental characteristics of a person, which allows us to say that this type of method
belongs to the group of poorly formalized ones.
Psychodiagnostic techniques are classified according to several bases. For
example, according to the form of conduct, they can be individual or group, written
(form) or oral, hardware (machine) or computer, verbal or non-verbal. Moreover,
each of them has several components: a manual for work, stimulus material (test
tasks, questions, pictures, etc.), a sheet for recording answers, keys of correct answers
(a template for processing answers) and an interpretation table that allows interpret
(interpret) the results obtained in one way or another.
If a diagnostic procedure is carried out with one person, then this technique is
called individual, if with several people — group. Each of these forms has its own
advantages and disadvantages. For example, the advantage of group methods is the
ability to simultaneously cover large groups of subjects, simplify the functions of a
diagnostic psychologist, more uniform conditions for conducting a diagnostic
procedure, and reduce the time for obtaining generalized information. At the same
time, in this case, there is a decrease in the possibility of establishing mutual
understanding with the subjects, developing positive motivation in them for
diagnosing their personal sphere. Individual diagnostics does not have these
disadvantages, but does not allow one to simultaneously obtain information about a
sufficiently large array of subjects.
The vast majority of currently used diagnostic techniques are form-based, that
is, they are presented in the form of written tasks, the completion of which requires
only forms for recording answers and pencils or other writing materials. During oral
diagnosis, tasks (questions) are presented by the researcher himself.
To carry out hardware diagnostics, special technical means (diagnostic
equipment or machines) are used to record responses and process the results obtained,
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operating on a mechanical principle. At the same time, with computer testing or a
survey, data processing, interpretation and presentation of the results obtained in the
form of tables, graphs and diagrams are greatly facilitated. It is important to
emphasize that this form of psychodiagnostics allows for a quick analysis of the data
obtained (for example, the number of refusals or requests for help), which in other
cases could only be obtained over a long period of time. Thanks to this, the researcher
at the same time receives, for example, the opportunity to conduct an in-depth
diagnosis of the individual characteristics of the thinking of the person being studied,
the tempo and other characteristics of his activity.
In verbal methods of psychodiagnostics, the activity of the researcher and the
subject is carried out in a verbal-logical (verbalized) form, and in non-verbal
methods, stimulus material is provided in the form of pictures, drawings, graphic
images and other visual (stimulus) material. However, in any case, all
psychodiagnostic techniques must meet the relevant requirements.
Basic requirements for diagnostic techniques
Of particular importance in the psychodiagnostics of a person’s personal sphere
is the choice of criteria for assessing the results obtained. By themselves, without
comparison with a reference point, the results of psychological research mean
nothing. Most often, they are compared with empirically established performance
standards in a standardization sample (a special sample of subjects of the type for
which the technique is intended) and are classified as low, medium or high. This
makes it possible to determine the position of a particular subject relative to the
normative sample or standardization sample. To do this, the number of correct
answers (“raw points”) is converted into standard indicators, comparable with each
other and with the norm, using special tables. In this case, the statistical norm used
(the average range of values on the scale of the property being measured) is
considered as a characteristic of a statistically average person.
However, in recent years, this method of assessing the results of diagnostics of
a person’s personal sphere has been criticized. Many experts believe that it is more
useful to focus on the system of requirements that society, at a certain stage of its
development, places on each of its members. These, for example, may be the
requirements for the mental, aesthetic or moral development of a person, which he
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needs in order to live in a particular social community. The presence of such socialcriteria norms (socio-cultural standards) is quite real. They are present in educational
standards, curricula, qualification professional characteristics, public opinion, etc.
The most important characteristics of diagnostic techniques are their reliability
and validity.
The reliability of the methodology used in the interests of diagnosing the
personal sphere indicates the repeatability and stability of the results obtained, their
constancy and stability in various conditions of the activity being diagnosed. It shows
how accurately psychological measurements are made and to what extent you can
trust the results obtained. Its high rates indicate the independence of diagnostic results
from the action of various random factors.
The reliability of a technique can be determined by its repeated application
after a certain period of time and calculating the correlation coefficient, which
reflects the statistical relationship between two parameters of the same phenomenon,
manifested in different conditions (for example, by time or location). It can also be
identified by testing or questioning using several versions of the same technique,
dividing it into several parts, etc. In any case, the reliability of the technique,
expressing the degree of inaccuracy, the possibility of error that inevitably arises
during the implementation of any diagnostic procedure forces us to look for ways to
reduce them in order to achieve its indicator of 0.8–0.9 (reliability coefficient).
Another most important characteristic of diagnostic techniques is their validity,
which in psychodiagnostics is considered as a criterion for assessing the quality of a
technique, used to determine the degree of reliability of the measurement results of
the mental phenomenon that one wants to diagnose with its help. In other words,
validity indicates whether a particular technique is suitable for measuring a particular
personal property or quality.
The most common way to calculate the validity coefficient of a
psychodiagnostic technique is to compare it with authoritative related techniques that
have undergone long-term testing and prove significant connections with them. The
validity index of best practices ranges from 0.6 to 0.8.
However, it should be taken into account that, along with fairly high indicators
(coefficients) of reliability and validity, the use of psychodiagnostic methods in most
cases requires special professional psychological training of the person using them. In
many organizations and firms, these tasks are solved by a psychologist or recruitment
manager. The head of a structural unit, if necessary, can turn to its services and obtain
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the necessary data about employees within the limits of acceptable ethical standards.
But in this case, it is necessary to understand what can be learned by using one or
another psychodiagnostic technique, and how to interpret the obtained results. Let's
look at the contents of some of them.
Methods for diagnosing personality mental phenomena
Assessment of the level of mental processes as an element of a person’s
personal sphere is carried out using various test methods.
The “Correction test using letter forms” (Bourdon's proof test) technique
is intended to determine the stability of visual attention in work conditions that
require its distribution and switching. When using it, the subjects must, at the
command of the supervisor, underline or cross out the letters he named on a special
form. After the set time has passed, at the command of the testing manager, the
operations change — those letters that were underlined are crossed out, and those that
were crossed out are underlined. Then the operations change again. And so on until
the set time expires. The characteristic of visual attention diagnosed in this way
allows the manager to determine the presence of a quality necessary, for example,
when solving problems of processing a large array of economic, financial and other
information.
The “Tangled Lines” technique is used to measure the degree of
concentration and stability of visual attention. The employees being studied need to
use their eyes to trace a winding line from the left edge of the form to the right on a
special form and enter in the right column the line number indicated in the left
column. High indicators of the diagnosed mental process create the prerequisites for
fairly careful processing of incoming important corporate information.
The "Oral Problems" technique is used to measure the productivity of
thinking. The subjects, at the command of the leader, must solve the simple
arithmetic problems indicated in the form. The number of correctly solved problems
determines the necessary characteristics of thinking.
The “Finding Numbers” technique is intended to measure the degree of
distribution of visual attention in conditions of homogeneous activity. Students need
to look through two tables with numbers, find and cross out those missing from the
list. Diagnostics of this characteristic of visual attention makes it possible to assess
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and predict the volume and quality of processing of various types of information
received on material and electronic media.
The “Oral tasks with memorization” technique is used to assess the level of
concentration of auditory attention and the amount of working memory in the integral
performance index.
With the help of special didactic tests, it is possible to assess the level of
development of such mental formations as knowledge, skills and abilities. However,
their theoretical development and justification have not yet been completed, which
still makes them inappropriate for consideration in educational literature.
To diagnose the mental properties of a subordinate employee’s personality, the
survey method, implemented in appropriate techniques, is predominantly used. For
example, G. Eysenck's personality questionnaire is designed to diagnose such
human psychological phenomena as neuroticism and psychoticism, temperament,
extroversion or introversion (closedness or openness) of an individual. The standard
questionnaire consists of 90 diagnostic and 11 neutral questions. It also contains
questions that form the so-called lie scale (sincerity scale). In the Russian Federation,
an adapted methodology including 57 questions is used.
R. Cattell's 16-factor personality questionnaire has much in common with the
methodology discussed. It is used to diagnose 16 characterological characteristics of
a person that influence his activity: kindness, perseverance, conscientiousness,
courage, daydreaming, etc. In the latest version, developed by the author, it consists
of 187 questions. In the Russian Federation, an adapted version of the questionnaire
consisting of 105 questions is most often used.
The methodology of the considered questionnaires is also used in a number of
others, including domestic developments (for example, in the “Forecast” and “KOS2” questionnaires), however, the reliability of their results is still low and they have
not received widespread use.
Some personal characteristics of employees can also be identified using the
sociometric survey technique (sociometric methodology). Its main purpose is the
study of socio-psychological phenomena in groups. However, the author also
provides for the identification of some individual psychological characteristics of the
respondents: social orientation, individual status in the team, level of need for
communication, and a number of others.
Projective techniques used in psychodiagnostics require sufficient special
training of a diagnostic psychologist. This is due to the high level of subjectivity
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