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Файл:Общая теория перевода. Учебно-методическое пособие
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Definite / definitive
Definite means certain, clearly defined: Their arrival time is
now definite. Definitive means final, often implying not merely the
last, but also the best: It is probably the definitive book on the
Vietnam War. This sentence means that the author has treated the
subject so much better than anyone before him, that it will be the
book on the war in Vietnam.
Department / division
If you are thinking about the organization in a company,
American usage prefers division for all but the tiniest sections in a
firm: Chemical Division, Marketing Division, and Export Division.
British usage has always preferred department, reserving division
for major integrated parts of a company: Export Department,
Marketing Department, Consumer Products Division.
Division, with its military connotation, somehow sounds more
impressive than department. That must be the reason why
companies outside North America tend to use it increasingly
for modest departments that would previously not have qualified
for this distinction.
This idea that the division is bigger than department isreversed
when it comes to the government. Then department is really the big
thing. The State Department, for example, is that vast United States
ministry known in other countries as Ministry for Foreign Affairs,
Foreign Ministry, and Ministry for External Affairs, and similar
more descriptive terms. (It is called Foreign Office in the UK).
Distinct / distinctive
Distinct is clear: a distinct difference, distinct outline, and
distinct advantage. Distinctive means being different from something
else. You may need a distinctive trademark, distinctive design, and
distinctive slogan, i.e. something that stands out, something that
people recognize because it is striking. Combining the two, you
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could say that a signpost can be made more distinctive by using
more distinct lettering.
Economic / economical
Economic refers to the science of economics. You can have
economic factors, an economic return on investment, and an
economic business. People can never be called economic.
Economical is the opposite of wasteful and can be applied to
people and objects. If money is involved, economical is simply
money-saving. He is very economical in his buying habits = spends
little. The new engine is highly economical = uses little fuel. In a
court case someone once admitted that he had been economical with
the truth, a very elegant way of saying that he was not telling the
whole truth.
Efficient / proficient
Efficient is competent, well organized. It can be applied to
people or things: She is incredibly efficient. Proficient means
qualified, skilled, an expert at something. It can be applied to people
only: They are proficient in (at) Braille. It is quite possible that
someone proficient (who knows his special field) can at the same
time be inefficient, if he forgets to answer letters or has a messy
workshop.
e.g. / i.e.
These two abbreviations are often confused. An example, a
limited selection is introduced by e.g. This is short for “exempli
gratia”. When reading it aloud, say for example, for instance or, if
you insist, ‘ee-gee’: They manufacture medical appliances, e.g.
syringes, catheters, surgical instruments, etc. An explanation, a
definition is introduced by i.e. (id est.). Say ‘eye-ee’, ‘namely’, ‘that
is’ or ‘that is to say’ when reading it aloud: They have three major
product lines, i.e. chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics.
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Egoist / egotist
The extra‘t’ makes a considerable difference, although both
people are not wildly attractive characters. An egoist is the same kind
of person you have in other languages; someone who thinks only of
himself; someone who is selfish. An egotist (remember that‘t’ to
denote talking) is a person who talks a lot about himself. An egotist
is probably also an egoist, but an egoist is often no egotist. (He keeps
very quiet while he is gobbling that pound of chocolates when
nobody is looking.)
Electric / electrical
Electric describes individual products that are in some
way actuated by electricity: electric light, electric train, electric
motor, and so on. It includes electric eel and electric shock.
Electrical describes anything else connected with electricity, also
the collective nouns of electricity-powered products: electrical
engineer, electrical science, electrical appliances, electrical
phenomenon, and so forth. Using the two adjectives in one sentence
you would be quite correct in saying: Our electric toaster is an
electrical appliance.
Error / mistake
The difference between the two is not enormous, but error is
usually less serious than mistake. If I ask you to multiply 312 by 758,
and you tell me that the result is 236 498, you probably made a slip
when typing the last digit. I would call this an error. If you tell me
that you bought a company two years ago, which has so far lost two
million dollars, you made a mistake (How could you do such a
thing?).
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Every / each
Here is something for the connoisseur. Every applies to an
unspecified number of objects. Each is usually better when the
number of objects is known or small. Examples: In Glasgow you find
a pub in every block. You do not know the number of blocks in
merry Glasgow. You are making a general statement, therefore
every. There is an entrance at each corner of the park. You know
that the park has four corners. Therefore each. Here are two nearly
identical sentences with a difference in interpretation: Every
airliner has a Certificate of Airworthiness. All airliners have it. A
general statement. Each airliner has a Certificate of Airworthiness.
Each single aircraft I am talking about; presumably of one specific
company, production run, and type.
Exceptional / exceptionable
Exceptional is, of course, something that is an exception,
unusual, abnormal: We had an exceptionally wet summer three years
ago. Exceptionable is mainly used in the negative form
unexceptionable. It means acceptable, not open to objection: I have
read the conditions. They seem unexceptionable. To take exception
to something means to disapprove, raise an objection. You will
probably find exceptionally good weather unexceptionable.
Fast / quick
These two are not completely interchangeable. Fast refers to
speed of movement or action: A fast train. A fast run. Quick relates
to the length of time an event or action takes: A quick meal. A quick
reply. Using both adjectives in one sentence, you could say: They
had a quick crossing because the boat was fast. He had a quick meal
because he is a fast eater. Exception department: quick can mean
speed if the movement or action is not sustained, abrupt: Try to get
that window seat! Quick! or He is an odd kind of man, with very
quick, nervous movements.
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Farther / further
Good news! Further can now safely be used in place of farther
although there is a difference according to the dictionary. Farther is
the comparative of far and thus relates to physical distance: London-
Eastbourne is farther than London-Brighton. Nobody will be
worried if you use further here. Further means additional, other, and
subsequent: We have to await further developments.
Floor / storey (Am.: story)
Floor indicates the position in a building: second floor, top
floor, etc. Storey refers to the height of a building: a tenstorey
apartment block.
Historic / historical
Historic refers to something important that is or will be
remembered in history, recorded by history: a historic meeting,
historic decision, historic voyage, historic landmark, etc. Historical
is the adjective for all other purposes when you mean to do with
history: a historical play, historical novel, historical costumes, etc.
Human / humane
Human is the more frequent adjective when referring to
matters concerning Homo sapiens: human habitation, human
failings, human ancestry, etc. Humane means benevolent,
compassionate: humane treatment is decent treatment.
In future / in the future
In future means from now on, starting now: All goods
will in future be sent by our own transport. In the future is more
vague and means at some unspecified later date: We hope to be able
to send all goods by our own transport in the future. (As soon as we
can afford three trucks.) While talking about ‘the future’, here is one
small point you may find interesting. If today is the 5th of the month
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and you want to say that something will happen on the 26th,
you have three ways of putting it: in three weeks; in three weeks
from now; in three weeks’ time. When using the last version, please
don‘t forget the apostrophe in writing: in five
hours’/days’/months’/years’ time.
if / whether
In many constructions these two words are indeed
interchangeable: I am not sure if this is possible. I am not sure
whether this is possible. The main difference is that whether is
always assumed to be followed by or not. This means that in
questions or requests an answer is usually expected. Take these two
almost identical sentences: Let me know if you can come. The stress
is here normally on the word ‘know‘. The speaker or writer tells you
here: If you can come, please let me know. (If you can‘t, don‘t
bother to notify me). On the other hand, someone may tell you: Let
me know whether you can come. This says: Please let me know
whether you can come or not. An answer is required.
Insulated / isolated
English has two words, where other languages only have one.
Insulated is the technical word: protected against electricity, heat or
cold. Isolated is the general adjective. It is used for anything that is
separated, kept apart: When the tide rose, he found himself isolated
on a tiny rock.
Last / latest
Last denotes final or most recent. This can be confusing: her
last book can mean that she never wrote any others or that it is her
most recent literary effort. Latest makes the position quite clear; it
means the most recent of several, leaving open the possibility of
more to come: our latest model, their latest publication, her latest
hairstyle.
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Libel / slander
Both mean the same: making false, damaging statements;
telling lies about a person or company. Libel, however, is something
written, usually a newspaper article. Slander is spreading all that
nasty information verbally. As it is much easier to prove written
defamation than word-of-mouth comment, you will sometimes hear
about a libel suit; hardly ever about legal action involving slander.
Lie / lay
These two are often mixed up in English-speaking countries,
mainly in the past tense.
There are two separate verbs: to lie means to recline, to be in a
horizontal position. It is irregular: to lie – lay – lain. He likes to lie in
bed until lunchtime. The book lay on the shelf. The ring must have
lain on the counter.
It is an intransitive verb, i.e. you cannot add a direct object.
You may lie on the floor, if you like that sort of thing; but you cannot
lie something on the floor. You then need the other verb: It is to lay,
which means to place, to put. It is irregular: to lay – laid – laid. It is
transitive, i.e. it can be followed by a direct object: Let me lay the
table. She must have laid it there by mistake. The ostrich laid an
enormous egg.
A frequent mistake is saying he lay it on the table. As
you now know, it should be: He laid it on the table. Note: Just to
complete the picture, there is also a third verb to lie, which means
telling something that is not true. It is regular: to lie – lied – lied.
Long / lengthy
These two often mean the same, except when referring to
something you have to read or listen to, when lengthy can imply that
you were bored: He produced a lengthy report after his trip to
Korea. Many pages, but not terribly entertaining.
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Much / many
Much applies to bulk, mass, an unspecified quantity. Many
are objects you can count: much money, many dishes. The same
definition applies to much worry/many worries and much
trouble/many troubles. Much worry is the total extent of your
problems. Many worries are the individual headaches that bother
you.
Murder / assassinate
The difference is simple: you and I are murdered. Statesmen
and other important people are assassinated.
Offer / quotation
An offer is more general. It can be verbal or in writing. It is
often applied to bulk goods with a variable price: We are interested
in an offer for 250 tons of prime bleached sulphite pulp. A quotation
is more formal. It is always in writing and is the best term for a
detailed proposal: Please let us have your quotation for Model
KLB 2000 with power feed, rotary table, and grinding
attachment. An offer is often based on a price calculation, a
quotation on a fixed price list. Outside the office you also have a
verbal offer when you tell someone how much you are prepared to
pay. For a used car, for example. An offer at an auction is called a
bid.
Official / officious
No problem with the adjective official, which means the same
as in other languages: properly authorized. Officious describes a
person who is over-keen to give service, who rushes around and
upsets people. The best noun would be busybody. An officious
waiter can ruin your carefully planned business lunch, if your guest
becomes irritated and is in no mood to discuss the proposed contract.
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Older / elder
Older is the general-purpose comparative form of old: old –
older – oldest. Elder and eldest refer to family members and are
always attributive adjectives: my elder brother, my eldest sister. You
cannot say my brother is elder than I.
On time / in time
On time means punctual: The train is on time. In time
means not late, before the last minute. In good time gives you a
little extra: We should get a window seat if we get there in
(good) time.
Passed / past
Identical pronunciation can cause mistakes; passed is a verb
form, the simple past or past participle of to pass: She passed the
test. They passed over the bridge. Past is here a preposition, applied
to time or space: It is now half past ten. The ball whistled past the
goal post.
Practical / practicable
Practical has to do with reality, with practice, with a
good idea: it seems the only practical solution. You are a
practical person if you can knock a nail into the wall without hitting
your thumb. Practicable means possible, something that can be put
into practice: This idea is unfortunately not practicable. This means
it can‘t be done. A practical suggestion may not be practicable.
Negative versions: unpractical and impracticable. (Impractical can
be found in American English.) Practically is colloquial for almost:
The book is practically finished.
Question / query
A question is a straight request for information. The person
asking it may know something about the subject; or he may know
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nothing. A query is the result of some doubt in the mind of the
speaker or writer who usually knows something about the subject.
Clever you and I, listening to the lecture on The Advantages and
Risks inherent in Pressurized Water System Nuclear Reactors, may
afterwards raise a query. Jack over there, who slept solidly
throughout the talk, will wake up and ask a question.
Readable / legible
Readable is easy to read because of style: The highly
complicated subject was treated in a readable manner. If you
want to make sure that your books are read by a wide audience, you
must make them readable, i.e. easy to understand, a pleasure to read.
Legible is also easy to read, but because the printing or writing is
clear: Some pages in this old bible are hardly legible.
Small / little
Small is the neutral, general-purpose word, but little has an
emotional element and conveys a personal attitude to the object.
They have a small fox terrier describes size in a detached, matter-offact way. You should see their little cocker spaniel indicates that
the speaker is rather fond of the little fellow. Another use of
little, often unconnected with physical size is as reinforcement of a
negative opinion. When you say “He is a nasty man!” you are
obviously not over-impressed by his charm. When you hiss “He is a
nasty little man!” he must be very nasty indeed.
Large / big
The difference is the same as that between small and little.
Large is for sober comment; big for a more personal or emotional
opinion. An advertisement for a house, for example, may mention a
large dining room. When you have seen it, you are likely to tell
your friends: “it’s got a big dining room”.
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