- •New words
- •Lecture 1 exercise 1
- •Lecture 1 lexicology
- •Lecture 2 new words
- •Lecture 2 exercise 2
- •Lecture 2 formal and informal speech
- •Informal Style
- •Colloquial words
- •Dialect words
- •Lecture 3 new words
- •Lecture 3 exercise 3
- •Lecture 3 the origin of english words native words
- •Borrowings
- •Classification of borrowings according to the language from which they were borrowed. Romanic borrowings. Latin borrowings
- •French borrowings the influence of french on the english spelling
- •Italian borrowings
- •Germanic borrowings
- •Scandinavian borrowings
- •German borrowings
- •Dutch borrowings
- •Slavonic borrowings
- •Etymological doublets
- •International words
- •Lecture 4 new words
- •Lecture 4 exercise 4
- •Lecture 4 abbreviations
- •Graphical abbreviations
- •Initial abbreviations
- •Abbreviation of words
- •Lecture 5 new words
- •Lecture 5 exercise 5
- •Prefixation
- •Topics for discussion
- •Lecture 6 new words
- •Lecture 6 exercise 6
- •Lecture 6 semasiology
- •Word-meaning
- •Lexical meaning – notion
- •Polysemy
- •Types of semantic components
- •Topics for discussion
- •Lecture 7 new words
- •Lecture 7 exercise 7
- •Lecture 7 homonyms
- •Classification of homonyms
- •Synonyms
- •Antonyms
- •Topics for discussion
- •Lecture 8 new words
- •Lecture 8 exercise 8
- •Lecture 8 british and american english
- •Differences in spelling
- •Differences in pronunciation
- •Topics for discussion
- •Lecture 9 new words
- •Lecture 9 exercise 9
- •Lecture 9 classification of language units according to the period of time they live in the language
- •Archaisms and historisms
- •Neologisms
- •Semantic groups of neologisms
- •Ways of forming neologisms
- •Changes in pronunciation
- •Topics for discussion
- •Lecture 10 new words
- •Lecture 10
- •Lecture 10 phraseology
- •Ways of forming phraseological units
- •Semantic classification of phraseological units
- •Structural classification of phraseological units
- •Exercise 2
- •Borrowed words exercise 1
- •Exercise 2
- •Abbreviations exercise 1
- •Exercise 2
- •Affixation. Prefixation and suffixation exercise 1
- •Exercise 2
- •Exercise 3
- •Exercise 4
- •Polisemy exercise 1
- •Exercise 2
- •Exercise 3
- •Homonyms. Synonyms. Antonyms exercise 1
- •Exercise 2
- •Exercise 3
- •Exercise 4
- •Exercise 5
- •Exercise 6 Fill in the blanks with the right words and explain your choice:
- •1.There were a lot of skaters on the … ice of the bank. 2. The lightning … and
- •Exercise 8
- •Neologisms exercise 1
- •Phraseology exercise 1
- •Exercise 2
- •Exercise 3
- •Exercise 4
- •Sources
- •Dictionaries
- •Contents
- •Borrowed words
- •Spanish words
Ways of forming phraseological units
A. V. Koonin classified phraseological units according to the way they are formed. He pointed out primary and secondary ways of forming phraseological units.
Primary ways of forming phraseological units are those when a unit is formed on the basis of a free word-group:
the most productive in Modern English is the formation of phraseological units by means of transferring the meaning of terminological word-groups, e.g. in cosmic terminology we can point out the following phrases: launching pad – in the direct meaning стартовий майданчик, in its transferred meaning – відправний пункт, to link up – стикуватися, стикувати космічні кораблі, in its transferred meaning it means знайомитися;
a large group of phraseological units was formed from free word groups by transferring their meaning (smile, consonant, metaphor), e.g. granny farm – пансіонат для людей похилого віку, as old as the hills – старий як світ, in a nutshell – коротше кажучи, more or less – більш чи менш;
phraseological units cam be formed by means of alliteration, e.g. a sad sack –нещасний випадок, culture vulture – людина, яка цікавиться мистецтвом, fudge and nudge – уникання;
by means of rhiming, e.g. by hook or by crook – by any possible means, high and dry – left without help etc;
they can also be formed by using synonyms, e.g. to pick and choose – to be terribly choosy, really and truly – quite honestly;
they can be formed by means of expressiveness, it is especially characteristic of interjections, e.g. My aunt! Hear! Hear! etc;
they can be formed by using archaism, e.g. in brown study means in gloomy meditation where both components preserve their archaic meanings;
they can be formed by using a sentence in a different sphere of life, e.g. that cock won’t fight can be used as a free word-group when it is used in sports (cock fighting), but it becomes a phraseological unit when it is used in everyday life, because it is used metaphorically;
they can be formed by using expressions of writers or politicians in everyday life, e.g. corridors of power (Snow), American dream (Alby), the winds of change (Mc Millan).
Secondary ways of forming phraseological units are those when a phraseological unit is formed on the basis of another phraseological unit. They are:
conversion, e.g. to vote with one’s feet was converted into vote with one’s feet (expressing a process by going away);
changing the grammar form, a sentence, e.g. Make hay while the sun shines is transferred into a verbal phrase – to make hay while the sun shines;
analogy, e.g. Curiosity killed the cat was transferred into Care killed the cat;
contrast, e.g. thin cat – a poor person was formed by contrasting it with fat cat – a rich person, kiss of death – treachery was formed by contrasting kiss of life – saving a person;
borrowing phraseological units from other languages, either as translation loans, e.g. living space (German), or as phonetic borrowings, e.g. meche blanche (French), corpse d’elite (French), sotto voce (Italian), bona fide (Latin).
Phonetic borrowings among phraseological units refer to the bookish style and are not used very often.