- •Для некоммерческого использования.
- •9. Fundamentals of English Lexicography:
- •§ 1. Definition. Links with
- •§ 2. Two Approaches to Language Study
- •§ 3. Lexicology and Sociolinguistics
- •§ 4. Lexical Units
- •§ 6. Course of Modern English
- •§ 2. Meaning in the Referential Approach
- •§ 3. Functional Approach to Meaning
- •§ 4. Relation between the Two Approaches
- •§ 5. Grammatical Meaning
- •§ 6. Lexical Meaning
- •§ 7. Parf-of-Speech Meaning
- •§ 8. Denotational and Connotational Meaning
- •§ 9. Emotive Charge
- •§ 10. Sfylistic Reference
- •§ 11. Emotive Charge and Stylistic Reference
- •§ 12. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 13. Lexical Meaning
- •§ 14. Functional (Parf-of-Speech) Meaning
- •§ 15. Differential Meaning
- •§ 16. Distributional Meaning
- •§ 17. Morphological Motivation
- •§ 18. Phonetical Motivation
- •§ 19. Semantic Motivation
- •§ 20. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 21. Causes of Semantic Change
- •§ 22. Nature of Semantic Change
- •§ 23. Results of Semantic Change
- •§ 24. Interrelation of
- •§ 25. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 26. Semantic Structure of Polysemantic Words
- •§ 27. Diachronic Approach
- •§ 28. Synchronic. Approach
- •§ 29. Historical
- •§ 30. Polysemy
- •§ 31. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 32. Homonymy of Words and Homonymy of Word-Forms
- •§ 33. Classification of Homonyms
- •§ 34. Some Peculiarities of Lexico-Grammatical Homonymy
- •§ 35. Graphic and Sound-Form of Homonyms
- •§ 36. Sources of Homonymy
- •§ 37. Polysemy and Homonymy:
- •§ 38. Formal Criteria: Distribution and Spelling
- •§ 39. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 40. Polysemy and Context
- •§ 41. Lexical Context
- •§ 42. Grammatical Context
- •§ 43. Extra-Linguistic Context (Context of Situation)
- •§ 44. Common Contextual
- •§ 45. Conceptual (or Semantic) Fields
- •§ 46. Hyponymic (Hierarchical) Structures and Lexico-Semantic Groups
- •§ 47. Semantic Equivalence and Synonymy
- •§ 49. Patterns of Synonymic Sets in Modern English
- •§ 50. Semantic Contrasts and Antonymy
- •§ 51. Semantic Similarity
- •§ 52. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 1. Lexical Valency (Collocability)
- •§ 2. Grammatical Valency
- •§ 3. Distribution as the Criterion of Classification
- •§ 4. Lexical Meaning
- •§ 5. Structural Meaning
- •§ 6. Interrelation of Lexical
- •§ 7. Syntactic Structure
- •§ 8. Polysemantic and Monosemantic Patterns
- •§ 9. Motivation in Word-Groups
- •§ 10. Summary and Conclusions
- •§11. Free Word-Groups
- •§ 12. Criteria of Stability
- •§ 13. Classification
- •§ 14. Some Debatable Points
- •§ 15. Criterion of Function
- •§ 16. Phraseological Units and Idioms Proper
- •§ 17. Some Debatable Points
- •§ 18. Criterion of Context
- •§ 19. Some Debatable Points
- •§ 20. Phraseology as a Subsystem of Language
- •§ 21. Some Problems of the Diachronic Approach
- •§ 22. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 1. Segmentation of Words into Morphemes
- •§ 2. Principles of Morphemic
- •§ 3. Classification of Morphemes
- •§ 4. Procedure of Morphemic Analysis
- •§ 5. Morphemic Types of Words
- •§ 6. Derivative Structure
- •§ 7. Derivative Relations
- •§ 8. Derivational Bases
- •§ 9. Derivational Affixes
- •§ 10. Semi-Affixes
- •§ 11. Derivational Patterns
- •§ 12. Derivational Types of Words
- •§ 13. Historical Changeability of Word-Structure
- •§ 14. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 1. Various Types and Ways of Forming Words
- •§ 2. Word-Formation.
- •§ 3. Word-Formation as the Subject of Study
- •§ 4. Productivity of Word-Formation Means
- •§ 5. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 6. Definition. Degree
- •§ 7. Prefixation. Some Debatable Problems
- •§ 8. Classification of Prefixes
- •§ 9. Suffixation. Peculiarities of Some Suffixes
- •§ 10. Main Principles of Classification
- •§ 11. Polysemy and Homonymy
- •§ 12. Synonymy
- •§ 13. Productivity
- •§ 14. Origin of Derivational Affixes
- •§ 15. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 16. Definition
- •§ 17. Synchronic Approach
- •§ 18. Typical Semantic Relations
- •I. Verbs converted from nouns (denominal verbs).
- •II. Nouns converted from verbs (deverbal substantives).
- •§ 19. Basic Criteria of Semantic Derivation
- •§ 20. Diachronic Approach of Conversion. Origin
- •§ 21. Productivity.
- •§ 22. Conversion and Sound-(stress-) Interchange
- •1) Breath — to breathe
- •§ 23. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 24. Compounding
- •§ 25. Structure
- •§ 26. Meaning
- •§ 27. Structural Meaning of the Pattern
- •§ 28. The Meaning of Compounds. Motivation
- •§ 29. Classification
- •§ 30. Relations between the iCs of Compounds
- •§31. Different Parts of Speech
- •§ 32. Means of Composition
- •§ 33. Types of Bases
- •§ 34. Correlation between Compounds and Free Phrases
- •§ 35. Correlation Types of Compounds.
- •§ 36. Sources of Compounds
- •§ 37. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 1. Some Basic Assumptions
- •§ 2. Semantic Characteristics and Collocability
- •§ 3. Derivational Potential
- •§ 4. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 5. Causes and Ways of Borrowing
- •§ 6. Criteria of Borrowings
- •§ 7. Assimilation of Borrowings
- •§ 8. Phonetic, Grammatical
- •§ 9. Degree of Assimilation and Factors Determining It
- •§ 10. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 11. The Role of Native and Borrowed Elements
- •§ 12. Influence of Borrowings
- •§ 13. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 1. Notional and Form-Words
- •§ 2. Frequency, Polysemy and Structure
- •§ 3. Frequency and Stylistic Reference
- •§ 4. Frequency, Polysemy and Etymology
- •§ 5. Frequency and Semantic Structure
- •§ 6. Development of Vocabulary
- •§ 7. Structural and Semantic
- •§ 8. Productive Word-Formation
- •§ 9. Various Ways of Word-Creation
- •§ 10. Borrowing
- •§ 11. Semantic Extension
- •§ 12. Some Debatable Problems of Lexicology
- •§ 13. Intrinsic Heterogeneity of Modern English
- •§ 14. Number of Vocabulary
- •§ 15. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 1. General Characteristics
- •§ 2. Lexical Differences of Territorial Variants
- •§ 3. Some Points of History
- •§ 4. Local Dialects in the British Isles
- •§ 5. The Relationship Between
- •§ 6. Local Dialects in the usa
- •§ 7. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 1. Encyclopaedic and Linguistic Dictionaries
- •§ 2. Classification of Linguistic Dictionaries
- •§ 3. Explanatory Dictionaries
- •§ 4. Translation Dictionaries
- •§ 5. Specialised Dictionaries
- •§ 6. The Selection
- •§ 7. Arrangement of Entries
- •§ 8. Selection and Arrangement of Meanings
- •§ 9. Definition of Meanings
- •§ 10. Illustrative Examples
- •§ 11. Choice of Adequate Equivalents
- •§ 12. Setting of the Entry
- •§ 13. Structure of the Dictionary
- •§ 14. Main Characteristic
- •§ 15. Classification of Learner’s Dictionaries
- •§ 16. Selection of Entry Words
- •§ 17. Presentation of Meanings
- •§ 18. Setting of the Entry
- •§ 19. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 1. Contrastive Analysis
- •§ 2. Statistical Analysis
- •§ 3. Immediate Constituents Analysis
- •§ 4. Distributional Analysis and Co-occurrence
- •§ 5. Transformational Analysis
- •§ 6. Componental Analysis
- •§ 7. Method of Semantic Differential
- •§ 8. Summary and Conclusions
- •I. Introduction
- •II. Semasiology
- •Meaning and Polysemy
- •Polysemy and Homonymy
- •III. Word-groups and phraseological units
- •Interdependence of Structure and Meaning in Word-Groups
- •IV. Word-structure
- •V. Word-formation
- •Various Ways of Forming Words
- •Affixation
- •Word-Composition
- •VI. Etymological survey of the english word-stock
- •Words of Native Origin
- •Borrowings
- •Interrelation between Native and Borrowed Elements
- •VII. Various aspects of vocabulary units and replenishment of modern english word-stock
- •Interdependence of Various Aspects of the Word
- •Replenishment of Modern English Vocabulary
- •Ways and Means of Enriching the Vocabulary
- •VIII. Variants and dialects of the english language The Main Variants of the English Language
- •IX. Fundamentals of english lexicography Main Types of English Dictionaries
- •Some Basic Problems of Dictionary-Compiling
- •X. Methods and procedures of lexicological analysis
§ 7. Prefixation. Some Debatable Problems
Prefixation is the formation of words with the help of prefixes. The interpretation of the terms prefix and prefixation now firmly rooted in linguistic literature has undergone a certain evolution. For instance, some time ago there were linguists who treated prefixation as part of word-composition (or compounding). The greater semantic independence of prefixes as compared with suffixes led the linguists to identify prefixes with the first component part of a compound word.2
At present the majority of scholars treat prefixation as an integral part of word-derivation regarding prefixes as derivational affixes which differ essentially both from root-morphemes and non-derivational prepositive morphemes. Opinion sometimes differs concerning the interpretation of the functional status of certain individual groups of morphemes which commonly occur as first component parts of words. H. Marchand, for instance, analyses words like to overdo, to underestimate as compound verbs, the first components of which are locative particles, not prefixes. In a similar way he interprets words like income, onlooker, outhouse qualifying them as compounds with locative particles as first elements.
There are about 51 prefixes in the system of Modern English word-formation.
1 See ‘Word-Structure’, § 9, p. 100.
2 See, for instance, E. Kruisinga. A Handbook of Present-Day English, pt. II, 1939.
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According to the available word-counts of prefixal derivatives l the greatest number are verbs — 42.4%, adjectives comprise 33,5% and nouns make up 22.4%. To give some examples.-
prefixal verbs: to enrich, to coexist, to disagree, to undergo, etc.;
prefixal adjectives: anti-war, biannual, uneasy, super-human, etc.;
prefixal nouns: ex-champion, co-author, disharmony, subcommittee,
etc.
It is of interest to mention that the number of prefixal derivatives within a certain part of speech is in inverse proportion to the actual number of prefixes: 22 form verbs, 41 prefixes make adjectives and 42 — nouns.
Proceeding from the three types of morphemes that the structural classification involves 2 two types of prefixes are to be distinguished:
those not correlated with any independent word (either notional or functional), e.g. un-, dis-, re-, pre-, post-, etc.; and
those correlated with functional words (prepositions or preposition like adverbs), e.g. out-, over-, up-, under-, etc.
Prefixes of the second type are qualified as semibound morphemes, which implies that they occur in speech in various utterances both as independent words and as derivational affixes, e.g. ‘over one’s head’, ‘over the river’ (cf. to overlap, to overpass); ‘to run out’, ‘to take smb out’ (cf. to outgrow, to outline); ‘to look up’, ‘hands up’ (cf. upstairs, to upset); ‘under the same roof, ‘to go under’ (cf. to underestimate, undercurrent), etc.
It should be mentioned that English prefixes of the second type essentially differ from the functional words they are correlated with:
like any other derivational affixes they have a more generalised meaning in comparison with the more concrete meanings of the correlated words (see the examples given above); they are characterised by a unity of different denotational components of meaning — a generalised component common to a set of prefixes and individual semantic component distinguishing the given prefix within the set.
they are deprived of all grammatical features peculiar to the independent words they are correlated with;
they tend to develop a meaning not found in the correlated words;
they form regular sets of words of the same semantic type.
Of late some new investigations into the problem of prefixation in English have yielded interesting results. It appears that the traditional opinion, current among linguists, that prefixes modify only the lexical meaning of words without changing the part of speech is not quite correct with regard to the English language. In English there are about 25 prefixes which can transfer words to a different part of speech in comparison with their original stems. Such prefixes should perhaps be called conversive prefixes, e.g. to begulf (cf. gulf n), to debus (cf. bus n); to embronze (cf. bronze n), etc. If further investigation of English prefixation gives
1 The figures are borrowed from: К. В. Пиоттух. Система префиксации в современном английском языке. Канд. дисс. М., 1971.
2 See ‘Word-Structure’, § 3, р. 92.
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more proofs of the conversive ability of prefixes, it will then be possible to draw the conclusion that in this respect there is no functional difference between suffixes and prefixes, for suffixes in English are also both conversive (cf. hand — handless) and non-conversive (cf. father — fatherhood, horseman — horsemanship, etc.).
Some recent investigations in the field of English affixation have revealed a close interdependence between the meanings of a polysemantic affix and the lexico-semantic group to which belongs the base it is affixed to, which results in the difference between structural and structural-semantic derivational patterns the prefix forms. A good illustration in point is the prefix en-.
When within the same structural pattern en-+n —> V, the prefix is combined with noun bases denoting articles of clothing, things of luxury, etc. it forms derived verbs expressing an action of putting or placing on, e.g. enrobe (cf. robe), enjewel (cf. jewel), enlace (cf. lace), etc.
When added to noun bases referring to various land forms, means of transportation, containers and notions of geometry it builds derived verbs denoting an action of putting or placing in or into, e.g. embed (cf. bed), entrap (cf. trap), embark (cf. bark), entrain (cf. train), encircle (cf. circle), etc.
In combination with noun bases denoting an agent or an abstract notion the prefix en- produces causative verbs, e.g. enslave (cf. slave), endanger (cf. danger), encourage (cf. courage), etc.