- •Для некоммерческого использования.
- •9. Fundamentals of English Lexicography:
- •§ 1. Definition. Links with
- •§ 2. Two Approaches to Language Study
- •§ 3. Lexicology and Sociolinguistics
- •§ 4. Lexical Units
- •§ 6. Course of Modern English
- •§ 2. Meaning in the Referential Approach
- •§ 3. Functional Approach to Meaning
- •§ 4. Relation between the Two Approaches
- •§ 5. Grammatical Meaning
- •§ 6. Lexical Meaning
- •§ 7. Parf-of-Speech Meaning
- •§ 8. Denotational and Connotational Meaning
- •§ 9. Emotive Charge
- •§ 10. Sfylistic Reference
- •§ 11. Emotive Charge and Stylistic Reference
- •§ 12. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 13. Lexical Meaning
- •§ 14. Functional (Parf-of-Speech) Meaning
- •§ 15. Differential Meaning
- •§ 16. Distributional Meaning
- •§ 17. Morphological Motivation
- •§ 18. Phonetical Motivation
- •§ 19. Semantic Motivation
- •§ 20. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 21. Causes of Semantic Change
- •§ 22. Nature of Semantic Change
- •§ 23. Results of Semantic Change
- •§ 24. Interrelation of
- •§ 25. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 26. Semantic Structure of Polysemantic Words
- •§ 27. Diachronic Approach
- •§ 28. Synchronic. Approach
- •§ 29. Historical
- •§ 30. Polysemy
- •§ 31. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 32. Homonymy of Words and Homonymy of Word-Forms
- •§ 33. Classification of Homonyms
- •§ 34. Some Peculiarities of Lexico-Grammatical Homonymy
- •§ 35. Graphic and Sound-Form of Homonyms
- •§ 36. Sources of Homonymy
- •§ 37. Polysemy and Homonymy:
- •§ 38. Formal Criteria: Distribution and Spelling
- •§ 39. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 40. Polysemy and Context
- •§ 41. Lexical Context
- •§ 42. Grammatical Context
- •§ 43. Extra-Linguistic Context (Context of Situation)
- •§ 44. Common Contextual
- •§ 45. Conceptual (or Semantic) Fields
- •§ 46. Hyponymic (Hierarchical) Structures and Lexico-Semantic Groups
- •§ 47. Semantic Equivalence and Synonymy
- •§ 49. Patterns of Synonymic Sets in Modern English
- •§ 50. Semantic Contrasts and Antonymy
- •§ 51. Semantic Similarity
- •§ 52. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 1. Lexical Valency (Collocability)
- •§ 2. Grammatical Valency
- •§ 3. Distribution as the Criterion of Classification
- •§ 4. Lexical Meaning
- •§ 5. Structural Meaning
- •§ 6. Interrelation of Lexical
- •§ 7. Syntactic Structure
- •§ 8. Polysemantic and Monosemantic Patterns
- •§ 9. Motivation in Word-Groups
- •§ 10. Summary and Conclusions
- •§11. Free Word-Groups
- •§ 12. Criteria of Stability
- •§ 13. Classification
- •§ 14. Some Debatable Points
- •§ 15. Criterion of Function
- •§ 16. Phraseological Units and Idioms Proper
- •§ 17. Some Debatable Points
- •§ 18. Criterion of Context
- •§ 19. Some Debatable Points
- •§ 20. Phraseology as a Subsystem of Language
- •§ 21. Some Problems of the Diachronic Approach
- •§ 22. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 1. Segmentation of Words into Morphemes
- •§ 2. Principles of Morphemic
- •§ 3. Classification of Morphemes
- •§ 4. Procedure of Morphemic Analysis
- •§ 5. Morphemic Types of Words
- •§ 6. Derivative Structure
- •§ 7. Derivative Relations
- •§ 8. Derivational Bases
- •§ 9. Derivational Affixes
- •§ 10. Semi-Affixes
- •§ 11. Derivational Patterns
- •§ 12. Derivational Types of Words
- •§ 13. Historical Changeability of Word-Structure
- •§ 14. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 1. Various Types and Ways of Forming Words
- •§ 2. Word-Formation.
- •§ 3. Word-Formation as the Subject of Study
- •§ 4. Productivity of Word-Formation Means
- •§ 5. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 6. Definition. Degree
- •§ 7. Prefixation. Some Debatable Problems
- •§ 8. Classification of Prefixes
- •§ 9. Suffixation. Peculiarities of Some Suffixes
- •§ 10. Main Principles of Classification
- •§ 11. Polysemy and Homonymy
- •§ 12. Synonymy
- •§ 13. Productivity
- •§ 14. Origin of Derivational Affixes
- •§ 15. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 16. Definition
- •§ 17. Synchronic Approach
- •§ 18. Typical Semantic Relations
- •I. Verbs converted from nouns (denominal verbs).
- •II. Nouns converted from verbs (deverbal substantives).
- •§ 19. Basic Criteria of Semantic Derivation
- •§ 20. Diachronic Approach of Conversion. Origin
- •§ 21. Productivity.
- •§ 22. Conversion and Sound-(stress-) Interchange
- •1) Breath — to breathe
- •§ 23. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 24. Compounding
- •§ 25. Structure
- •§ 26. Meaning
- •§ 27. Structural Meaning of the Pattern
- •§ 28. The Meaning of Compounds. Motivation
- •§ 29. Classification
- •§ 30. Relations between the iCs of Compounds
- •§31. Different Parts of Speech
- •§ 32. Means of Composition
- •§ 33. Types of Bases
- •§ 34. Correlation between Compounds and Free Phrases
- •§ 35. Correlation Types of Compounds.
- •§ 36. Sources of Compounds
- •§ 37. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 1. Some Basic Assumptions
- •§ 2. Semantic Characteristics and Collocability
- •§ 3. Derivational Potential
- •§ 4. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 5. Causes and Ways of Borrowing
- •§ 6. Criteria of Borrowings
- •§ 7. Assimilation of Borrowings
- •§ 8. Phonetic, Grammatical
- •§ 9. Degree of Assimilation and Factors Determining It
- •§ 10. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 11. The Role of Native and Borrowed Elements
- •§ 12. Influence of Borrowings
- •§ 13. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 1. Notional and Form-Words
- •§ 2. Frequency, Polysemy and Structure
- •§ 3. Frequency and Stylistic Reference
- •§ 4. Frequency, Polysemy and Etymology
- •§ 5. Frequency and Semantic Structure
- •§ 6. Development of Vocabulary
- •§ 7. Structural and Semantic
- •§ 8. Productive Word-Formation
- •§ 9. Various Ways of Word-Creation
- •§ 10. Borrowing
- •§ 11. Semantic Extension
- •§ 12. Some Debatable Problems of Lexicology
- •§ 13. Intrinsic Heterogeneity of Modern English
- •§ 14. Number of Vocabulary
- •§ 15. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 1. General Characteristics
- •§ 2. Lexical Differences of Territorial Variants
- •§ 3. Some Points of History
- •§ 4. Local Dialects in the British Isles
- •§ 5. The Relationship Between
- •§ 6. Local Dialects in the usa
- •§ 7. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 1. Encyclopaedic and Linguistic Dictionaries
- •§ 2. Classification of Linguistic Dictionaries
- •§ 3. Explanatory Dictionaries
- •§ 4. Translation Dictionaries
- •§ 5. Specialised Dictionaries
- •§ 6. The Selection
- •§ 7. Arrangement of Entries
- •§ 8. Selection and Arrangement of Meanings
- •§ 9. Definition of Meanings
- •§ 10. Illustrative Examples
- •§ 11. Choice of Adequate Equivalents
- •§ 12. Setting of the Entry
- •§ 13. Structure of the Dictionary
- •§ 14. Main Characteristic
- •§ 15. Classification of Learner’s Dictionaries
- •§ 16. Selection of Entry Words
- •§ 17. Presentation of Meanings
- •§ 18. Setting of the Entry
- •§ 19. Summary and Conclusions
- •§ 1. Contrastive Analysis
- •§ 2. Statistical Analysis
- •§ 3. Immediate Constituents Analysis
- •§ 4. Distributional Analysis and Co-occurrence
- •§ 5. Transformational Analysis
- •§ 6. Componental Analysis
- •§ 7. Method of Semantic Differential
- •§ 8. Summary and Conclusions
- •I. Introduction
- •II. Semasiology
- •Meaning and Polysemy
- •Polysemy and Homonymy
- •III. Word-groups and phraseological units
- •Interdependence of Structure and Meaning in Word-Groups
- •IV. Word-structure
- •V. Word-formation
- •Various Ways of Forming Words
- •Affixation
- •Word-Composition
- •VI. Etymological survey of the english word-stock
- •Words of Native Origin
- •Borrowings
- •Interrelation between Native and Borrowed Elements
- •VII. Various aspects of vocabulary units and replenishment of modern english word-stock
- •Interdependence of Various Aspects of the Word
- •Replenishment of Modern English Vocabulary
- •Ways and Means of Enriching the Vocabulary
- •VIII. Variants and dialects of the english language The Main Variants of the English Language
- •IX. Fundamentals of english lexicography Main Types of English Dictionaries
- •Some Basic Problems of Dictionary-Compiling
- •X. Methods and procedures of lexicological analysis
§ 29. Classification
Compound words may be described from different points of view and consequently may be classified according to different principles. They may be viewed from the point of view: 1) of general relationship and degree of semantic independence of components; 2) of the parts of speech compound words represent; 3) of the means of composition used to link the two ICs together; 4) of the type of ICs that are brought together to form a compound; 5) of the correlative relations with the system of free word-groups.
Each type of compound words based on the above-mentioned principles should also be described from the point of view of the degree of its potential power, i.e. its productivity, its relevancy to the system of Modern English compounds. This description must aim at finding and setting a system of ordered structural and semantic rules for productive types of compound words on analogy with which an infinite number of new compounds constantly appear in the language.
§ 30. Relations between the iCs of Compounds
From the point of view of degree of semantic independence there are two types of relationship between the ICs of compound words that are generally recognised in linguistic literature: the relations of coordination and subordination, and accordingly compound words fall into two classes: coordinative compounds (often termed copulative or additive) and subordinative (often termed determinative).
In coordinative compounds the two ICs are semantically equally important as in fighter-bomber oak-tree, girl-friend, Anglo-American. The constituent bases belong to the same class and most often to the same semantic group. Coordinative compounds make up a comparatively small group of words. Coordinative compounds fall into three groups:
Reduplicative compounds which are made up by the repetition of the same base as in goody-goody, fifty-fifty, hush-hush, pooh- pooh. They are all only partially motivated.
Compounds formed by joining the phonically variated rhythmic twin forms which either alliterate with the same initial consonant but vary the vowels as in chit-chat, zig-zag, sing-song, or rhyme by varying the initial consonants as in clap-trap, a walkle-
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talkie, helter-skelter. This subgroup stands very much apart. It is very often referred to pseudo-compounds and considered by some linguists irrelevant to productive word-formation owing to the doubtful morphemic status of their components. The constituent members of compound words of this subgroup are in most cases unique, carry very vague or no lexical meaning of their own, are not found as stems of independently functioning words. They are motivated mainly through the rhythmic doubling of fanciful sound-clusters.
Coordinative compounds of both subgroups (a, b) are mostly restricted to the colloquial layer, are marked by a heavy emotive charge and possess a very small degree of productivity.
c) The bases of a d d i t i v e compounds such as” a queen-bee, an actor-manager, unlike the compound words of the first two subgroups, are built on stems of the independently functioning words of the same part of speech. These bases often semantically stand in the genus-species relations. They denote a person or an object that is two things at the same time. A secretary-stenographer is thus a person who is both a stenographer and a secretary, a bed-sitting-room (a bed-sitter) is both a bed-room and a sitting-room at the same time. Among additive compounds there is a specific subgroup of compound adjectives one of ICs of which is a bound root-morpheme. This group is limited to the names of nationalities such as Sino-Japanese, Anglo-Saxon, Afro-Asian, etc.
Additive compounds of this group are mostly fully motivated but have a very limited degree of productivity.
However it must be stressed that though the distinction between coordinative and subordinative compounds is generally made, it is open to doubt and there is no hard and fast border-line between them. On the contrary, the border-line is rather vague. It often happens that one and the same compound may with equal right be interpreted either way — as a coordinative or a subordinative compound, e.g. a woman-doctor may be understood as ‘a woman who is at the same time a doctor’ or there can be traced a difference of importance between the components and it may be primarily felt to be ‘a doctor who happens to be a woman’, cf. also a mother-goose, a clock-tower.
In subordinative compounds the components are neither structurally nor semantically equal in importance but are based on the domination of the head-member which is, as a rule, the second IC. The second IC thus is the semantically and grammatically dominant part of the word, which preconditions the part-of-speech meaning of the whole compound as in stone-deaf, age-long which are obviously adjectives, a wrist-watch, road-building, a baby-sitter which are nouns.
Subordinative compounds make the bulk of Modern English compound words, as to productivity most of the productive types are subordinative compounds.