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Файл:Взгляд на фармацию. Учебное пособие для студентов фармацевтического факультета
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Fred’s life was a quiet one when he was a child. His centre of
interest was his huge collie dog.
One day, on his way home from school, he stopped to look at two
men who were repairing the roof of a house. Suddenly the planks
on which they were standing fell to the ground. e two men fell
with them.
One of the men did not move; the other had a broken arm. When
a doctor arrived, he examined the two men and set to work. Fred
stood by the doctor and watched.
«From that day», Fred said later, «I thought that the greatest
service in life is that of the medical profession, and my greatest
ambition was to be a doctor».
Towards the end of Fred’s schooldays, there was a double tragedy
which may have increased his interest in medicine.
Two schoolfellows of Fred’s had been taken ill. is illness was
called «infantile diabetes» and sometimes «sugar sickness».
Soon the boys died.
e disease itself was known in ancient times. Its symptoms were
described by Egyptian, Greek, and Roman doctors. But they did not
know what caused it. All they knew was that the persons taken ill
grew thinner and thinner and suered from a terrible thirst. Death
ended their suerings.
It was in 1910 that Fred was accepted as a rst-year student at
Victoria College, Toronto.
Medicine became more and more attractive to him. During the
Easter holidays he announced his decision to his father, who had
wanted him to become a minister. He knew that it would be a shock
for his father, but Mr. Banting allowed Fred to study medicine.
Fred went back to Toronto a happy student. Work was very
dierent now. Gone with Latin and Greek! He studied anatomy,
physiology, as well as bacteriology and chemistry.
In those early days of his medical training, Banting had less and
less time for anything but work. He was especially interested in
surgery, and most of all he wanted to study the way in which the
bones of the human body worked.
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In 1915, Banting carried out his rst surgical operation. All went
well and the patient recovered completely.
In 1916, Banting passed his nal examinations. He was now a fully
qualied doctor.
He was at once appointed a lieutenant in the Canadian Army
Medical Corps.
ere were many exciting events.
In 1918 a shell exploded so near that a fragment from it hit Banting
in the arm. A Canadian doctor examined the wound, took out some
pieces of shrapnel and wanted Banting to go to the ambulance.
«You are short-handed already», Banting replied. «is is not a
deep wound. I’ll be all right».
e doctor knew that this was just pure nonsense. Banting had
lost much blood, and he was suering from shock. But as there
was a violent German attack, Captain Banting, his arm covered
with a blood-stained bandage, was still on his feet at four o’clock
in the morning.
In 1918 by the time the war was over, Banting was completely
recovered. Now it was time to go home.
e young Canadian wanted to practice orthopedic surgery.
is was the treatment of people, especially children, who had
deformities of the bones.
During twelve weeks he did not have a single patient. So Dr.
Banting had to look for an extra job.
One day he heard that the university department of physiology
needed an instructor. It was Banting who got the job. In this way
Frederick entered the eld of physiology.
One night, in October 1920, he began preparing material for the
next week’s lectures. He was to lecture to his students on an organ
of the human body called the pancreas. His text book was open to a
picture of the digestive organs.
e pancreas is a so organ lying behind the stomach. It produces
a digestive juice called the pancreatic juice. e pancreas not only
produces a digestive juice but also a hormone called insulin. It is
produced by a cluster of cells in the pancreas called the Islets of
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Langerhans. e blood as it ows through the pancreas picks up
insulin.
e amount of sugar in the blood is regulated by the amount of
insulin from the pancreas. e pancreas thus helps the body to use
sugar. In diabetes something happens to the pancreas so that it no
longer secretes insulin or secretes too small an amount, and soon
the patient dies.
e subject of diabetes did not belong to the physiology class. But
Banting could not forget the problem.
He began to think that possibly the Islets of Langerhans had
in them something which was valuable to the human body, and
maybe this something might have an inuence on treating diseases
of diabetes which had killed two of his school friends. Doctor had
long been studying diabetes. ey knew that the pancreas had some
inuence on the way which sugar was used in the human body. But
none of them thought that the Islets of Langerhans were the really
important part of the pancreas.
Diabetes does not come from outside. It comes because a delicate
mechanism inside the body breaks down.
Banting rst became interested in the treatment of diabetes – it
was on that October night when he was preparing his lecture to the
students on an organ of the human body called the pancreas.
He did not go to bed until two o’clock in the morning. e last
thing he did that night was to take a little notebook and write:
«Tie o pancreas duct of dogs. Wait six or eight weeks. Remove
and extract.»
When he woke up next morning, he studied his note carefully. He
set out to read all the experiments concerning the pancreas.
As far as Banting could determine no one had even tried this
method.
Banting went to the head of the physiology department and told
him the story. e doctor was surprised to nd his assistant eager to
do the most complicated kind of physiological research.
«Go to the University of Toronto», he told the young man, «to
Professor Macleod. His laboratory is the place for your work, and
he can give you information and help».
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Dr. Macleod told Banting that there had been a lot of work done
on this problem of pancreas, and that he did not think a new
attempt would bring better results. But Banting did not give up.
He asked little: just ten animals, a small laboratory – and all for
only eight weeks.
Finally the professor said that, since he was going away for the
summer, part of the laboratory would be unused. If Banting wanted
it, he could have it, and he would be allowed to have ten dogs for his
work. He would also have a student to help him.
One of these students was named Charles Best. His subjects were
physiology and biochemistry. Macleod had recommended him to
Banting because the young man would be very useful in carrying out
the necessary chemical tests on such matters as the sugar content of
the blood of the dogs. Banting knew practically nothing about these
tests. at is why the presence of Charles Best in the laboratory was
a rare piece of luck.
ere was no salary and Banting could hardly pay for his own
room. He had to sell his beloved, but very old, Ford car.
Once he was in the laboratory the rst step was easy. e pancreatic
ducts of a number of dogs, through which the strong digestive juices
of the pancreases ow, were to be tied o.
In 1923 his work had been given the highest honour of all the
Nobel Prize. Apart from the Nobel Prize, the project which gave him
the greatest joy was the starting in 1928 of a great new building in
Toronto. is was the Banting Institute, to be the home of Canadian
medical research.
Insulin occupies an almost exceptional position in the history
of medicine. It has eliminated the word «hopeless», and it has
given years of active, normal life to millions of people suering
from diabetes. ey will always bless the discoverer of insulin
Frederick Banting.
5. PHARMACEUTICALS
e pharmaceutical industry is fuelled by the never-ending search
for new medicines. British scientists have an unrivalled history of
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innovation, and many of the important discoveries which shaped
the history of Western medicine were made in Britain.
e discovery of vaccines to protect against diseases was a
landmark in the development of modern medicine. In 1796 Edward
Jenner rst introduced vaccination against smallpox in Britain.
From that time the use of vaccines grew steadily across Western
Europe. In 1847 chloroform the rst modern anaesthetic, was
used by James Simpson. Two years later two researchers at Oxford
University-Howard Florey and Ernst Chain – managed to isolate the
active antibacterial substance. is meant large scale commercial
production of penicillin for civil use could begin in 1946 by Glaxo
and other rms.
e discovery of penicillin and the parallel development and
production of sulphonamides (particularly important in the
treatment of pneumonia) amounted to no less than a revolution in
medicine.
In the 1940’s American researchers discovered streptomycin,
an antibiotic eective against tuberculosis, and the rst broadspectrum antibiotic, chloramphenicol. Britain to pioneer advances
in antibiotics and vaccination during 1950’s and 1960’s and was in
the forefront of the major developments of these decades such as
treatments for skin diseases, allergies and clinical depression.
ese are some of the further landmark discoveries by British
scientists in the last three decades:
e Beecham group was the rst to discover semi-synthetic
penicillin.
Imperial Chemical Industries’ scientists, led by Nobel Prize
winner Sir James Black (1988), discovered beta-blockers, important
in the treatment of high blood pressure and angina.
e Boots Company developed ibuprofen, used for rheumatoid
arthritis.
e drug cimetidine, for the treatment of peptic ulcers, was
discovered by Smith Kline.
Glaxo’s laboratories went on to discover another anti-ulcer drug,
ranitidine; the world’s biggest selling medicine.
225
Drugs which revolutionized the treatment of asthma were
discovered by British companies Fisons (sodium cromoglycate) and
Glaxo (salbutamol and an inhaled corticosteroid).
Interferons, which are produced by the auto-immune system and
are used for a number of diseases, including cancer, were discovered
by Alick Isaacs and Jean Lindemann in Britain in 1957.
e structure of insulin was unraveled by scientists at Cambridge
University and led to the production of synthetic human insulin
instead of insulin from pigs or cattle for diabetes.
e rst monoclonal antibodies, used as raw materials for other
products and to purify alpha-interferon and blood-typing products,
were produced in Britain in 1975.
e structure of DNA, the chemical basis of genes, was discovered
in Britain by scientists from the Medical research Council Laboratory
of Molecular Biology.
5. THE SIX ASPECTS OF HEALTH
e term «wellness» is oen used to describe a broader view of
good health. Wellness includes not only physical well-being but
also emotional, social, personal, mental and spiritual tness as well.
Being healthy is more than just managing to stay out of a doctor’s
oce. Much, much more.
Physical Health
- Includes keeping your body t.
- Includes total care of your body and meeting the demands of life
every day.
- Encourages cardiovascular exibility and strength.
- Encourages knowledge about food and nutrition.
- Discourages the use of tobacco, drugs and excessive alcohol
consumption.
- Encourages activities which contribute to a high level of wellness,
including
medical selfcare and appropriate use of the medical system.
226
Emotional Health
- Includes expressing your emotions in a healthy way.
- Includes facing life’s problems and dealing with its pressures, or
stresses.
- Includes the degree to which one feels positive and enthusiastic
about oneself and life.
- Includes the capacity to manage one’s feelings and related
behaviours including the realistic assessment of one’s limitations,
development of autonomy and ability to cope eectively with
stress.
Social Health
- Relates to how we see ourselves as individuals, as male or female,
and how
we interact with other people.
- Encourages contributing to one’s human and physical
environment, to the
common welfare of one’s community.
- Emphasizes the interdependence with others and nature.
- Includes the pursuit of harmony in one’s family.
Personal Health
- Relates to how we see ourselves as a person, how our ego develops,
what we hope to achieve, and how we dene success for ourselves.
- Involves preparing for work in which one will gain personal
satisfaction and nd enrichment in one’s life through work.
- Includes nding self-fulllment in unique ways, ways that are
dened by
- what we value and what we hope to accomplish for ourselves and
our community.
Mental Health
- Encourages creative, stimulating mental activities.
- Relates to how we get information, knowing where to get
information we
need and how to use the information we receive.
- Includes liking who you are and accepting yourself.
227
Spiritual Health
- Involves seeking meaning and purpose of human existence.
- Involves developing a strong sense of personal values and ethics.
- Includes the development of a deep appreciation for the depth
and expance of life and natural forces that exist in the universe.
7. THE DANDELION
1. Although not occurring in the Southern Hemisphere, it is at
home in all parts of the north temperate zone, in pastures, meadows
and on waste ground, and is so plentiful, that farmers everywhere
nd it a troublesome weed, for though its owers are more
conspicuous in the earlier months of the summer, it may be found
in bloom, and consequently also procially dispersing its seeds,
almost throughout the year.
Description – From its thick tap root, dark brown, almost black on
the outside though white and milky within, the long jagged leaves
rise directly, radiating from it to form a rosette lying close upon the
ground, each leave being grooved and constructed so that all the
rain falling on it is conducted straight to the center of the rosette
and thus to the root which is, therefore, always kept well watered.
e maximum amount of water is in this manner directed towards
the proper region for utilization by the root, which but for this
arrangement would not obtain sucient moisture, the leaves being
spread too close to the ground for the water to penetrate.
e leaves are shiny and without hairs, the margin of each leaf
cut into great jagged teeth, either upright or pointing somewhat
backwards, and these teeth are themselves cut here and there into
lesser teeth.
2. It is this somewhat fanciful resemblance to the canine teeth
of a lion that (it is generally assumed) gives the plant its most
familiar name of Dandelion, which is a corruption of the French
Dent de Lion, an equivalent of this name being found not only in
its former specic Latin name Dens Leonis and in Greek name
for the genus to which Linnaeus assigned it, Leontodon, but also is
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nearly in all the languages of Europe. ere is some doubt, however,
as to whether it was really the shape of the leaves that provided the
original notion, as there is really no similarity between them. In the
«Ortus Sanitatis», 1485, under «Dens Leonis», there is a monograph
of half a page (unaccompanied by any illustration) which concludes:
«e Herb was much employed by Master Wilhelmus, a surgeon,
who on account of its virtues, likened it to a lion’s tooth, called in
Latin Dens Leonis».
e name of the genus, Taraxacum, is derived from the Greek
taraxos (disorder), and akos (remedy), on account of the curative
action of the plant. A possible alternative derivation of Taraxacum
is suggested in «e Treasury of Botany»: «e generic name
is possibly derived from the Greek taraxo («I have excited» or
«caused») and achos (pain), in allusion to the medicinal eect of
the plant».
3. e shining purplish ower-stalks rise straight from the root,
are leaess, smooth and hollow and bear single heads of owers. On
picking the owers, a bitter, milky juice exudes from the broken
edges of the stem, which is present throughout the plant, and which
when it comes into contact with the hand, turns to a brown stain
that is rather dicult to remove.
Each bloom is made up of numerous strap-shaped orets of a
bright golden yellow. is strap-shaped corolla is notched at the edge
into ve teeth, each tooth representing a petal, and lower down is
narrowed into a claw-like tube, which rests on the single chambered
ovary containing a single ovule. In this tiny tube is a copious supply
of nectar, which more than half lls it, and the presence of which
provides the incentive for the visits of many insects, among which
the bee takes rst rank.
Many little ies are also to be found visiting the Dandelion to
drink the lavishly-supplied nectar. By carefully watching, it has been
ascertained that no less than ninety-three dierent kinds of insects
are in the habit of frequenting it. e stigma grows up through the
tube formed by the anthers, pushing the pollen before it, and insects
smearing themselves with this pollen carry it to the stigmas of other
owers already expanded, thus insuring cross-fertilization.
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4. e blooms are very sensitive to weather conditions: in ne
weather, all the parts are outstretched, but directly rain threatens
the whole head closes up at once. It closes against the dews of night,
by ve o’clock in the evening, being prepared for its night’s sleep,
opening again at seven in the morning, though as this opening and
closing is largely dependent upon the intensity of the light, the time
diers somewhat in dierent latitudes and at dierent seasons.
When the whole head has matured, all the orets close up again
within the green sheathing bracts that lie beneath, and the bloom
returns very much to the appearance it had in the bud. Its shape
being then somewhat reminiscent of the snout of a pig, it is termed
in some districts «Swine’s Snout». e withered, yellow petals are,
however, soon pushed o in a bunch, as the seeds, crowned with
their tus of hair, mature, and one day, under the inuence of sun
and wind the «Swine’s Snout» becomes a large gossamer ball, from
its silky whiteness a very noticeable feature. It is made up of myriads
of plumed seeds or pappus, ready to be blown o when quite ripe by
the slightest breeze, and forms the «clock» of the children, who by
blowing at it till all the seeds are released, love to tell themselves the
time of the day by the number of pus necessary to disperse every
seed. When all the seeds have own, the receptacle or disc on which
they were placed remains bare, white, speckled and surrounded by
merely the drooping remnants of the sheathing bracts, and we can
see why the plant received another of its popular names, «Priest’s
Crown», common in the Middle Ages, when a priest’s shorn head
was a familiar object.
5. e young leaves of the Dandelion make an agreeable and
wholesome addition to spring salads and are oen eaten on the
Continent, especially in France. e full-grown leaves should not be
taken, being too bitter, but the young leaves, especially if blanched,
make an excellent salad, either alone or in combination with other
plants, lettuce, shallot tops or chives.
In Berkshire and Worcestershire, the owers are used in the
preparationof a beverage known as Dandelion Wine. is is made
by pouring a gallon of boiling water over a gallon of the owers.
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