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Chapter 11 Medicinal and aromatic plants with antioxidant properties 413
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Alema Dedić✶, Hurija Džudžević-Čančar, Amra Alispahić, and Emina Boškailo
Chapter 12 Medicinal and aromatic plants with antibacterial properties
Abstract: Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) is the collective name for aromatic
plants that belong to the category of medicinal plants. MAPs are becoming more popu lar around the world due to application in industries like the pharmaceutical busi­ness, healthcare products, cosmetics, organic food products, etc. Approximately 40% of newly approved medications over the past 20 years are made from natural ingre dients, and most pharmaceutical corporations file patents on medical plants and their derivatives. These plants contain odorous volatile substances that exist in all their parts, including the root, wood, bark, stem, foliage, flower, and fruit, and are responsi ble for the distinctive fragrance. Extracts and essential oils are the most common ap­plications of MAPs. Essential oils are complex volatile compounds, naturally synthe­sized by various parts of the plant during the secondary metabolism of plants, and have the ability to inhibit the growth of a wide range of pathogenic microorganisms. The knowledge of their medicinal qualities has been handed down by human socie ties. The aim of this article is to focus on the antibacterial activities of compounds from MAPs and the possible mechanisms involved in the inhibition of a variety of bacterial strains as their chemical potential. Plants hold great promise as a source of novel antibacterial agents due to a wide variety of chemically and structurally diverse secondary metabolites such as polyphenols, terpenoids, and alkaloids. Historical re cords and modern investigations highlight the importance of plant products in the treatment of various diseases caused by bacteria. Medicinal plant-derived compounds could provide novel, straightforward approaches against pathogenic bacteria.
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Keywords: medicinal and aromatic plant, antibacterial activity, polyphenols, terpe­noids, alkaloids
Corresponding author:
Sarajevo-Faculty of Pharmacy, Zmaja od Bosne 8, Sarajevo 71000, Bosnia and Herzegovina, e-mail: alema.dedic@ffsa.unsa.ba Hurija Džudžević-Čančar, Amra Alispahić, Department of Chemistry in Pharmacy, University of Sarajevo-Faculty of Pharmacy, Zmaja od Bosne 8, Sarajevo 71000, Bosnia and Herzegovina e-mail:
alema.dedic@ffsa.unsa.ba Emina Boškailo, Department of Ecology and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Social Sciences Dr. Milenko Brkić, Herzegovina University, Mostar 88000, Bosnia and Herzegovina; International Society of Engineering Science and Technology, Nottingham, UK
Alema Dedić, Department of Chemistry in Pharmacy, University of
418 Alema Dedić et al.

12.1 Introduction

Almost every culture has utilized medicinal plants as a source of treatment for differ­ent issues. In both developed and developing nations, ensuring the efficacy, safety, and quality of medical plants and herbal products has emerged as a crucial concern. Over the years, between human societies, the knowledge of their medicinal qualities has been carried down [1]. All around the world, medicinal plants have long been used to cure a wide range of ailments, including asthma, gastrointestinal disorders, skin disorders, respiratory and urinary problems, and cardiovascular and hepatic dis­eases. To live and thrive in their natural habitat, these plants create a range of physio­logically active substances, including defenses against abiotic stresses brought on by temperature, water quality, nutrition and mineral availability, and insect pests. The species of the plant, the kind of soil, and the relationship between the plant and mi­crobes all affect the physiologically active chemicals found in medicinal plants [2-4]. The chemical reactions of plant-associated microbial communities can also be signifi­cantly impacted by secondary metabolites produced by aromatic and medicinal plants [5, 6]. Aromatic plant species’ biological traits are frequently attributed to active mole­cules generated during secondary metabolism. Essential oils, which are utilized for many different reasons around the world, including the treatment of infectious dis­eases, are mostly extracted from these components. Thanks to a growing number of papers on dangerous bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics, antimicrobial qualities of many plants that were once thought to be empirical have now been scientifically verified. In a variety of situations, plant-based products are able to regulate microbial development. The chemical composition of these plant antibacterials and the mecha­nisms underlying their capacity to suppress microbial growth in the particular con­text of disease therapy, either by themselves or in combination with traditional anti­biotics, have been the subject of several research [7, 8].
Traditional medical methods have gained international attention in the last de­cade. According to current estimates, an important segment of human beings in many developing nations primarily depends on traditional healers and medicinal herbs to cover their basic medical needs. For historical and cultural reasons, herbal medicines have frequently maintained their popularity even when modern medicine is available in certain nations. Many times, medicinal plants are utilized as raw materials to ex­tract the active compounds needed to make various medications. Plant-based com­pounds are used in blood thinners, antibiotics, antimalarial drugs, and laxatives. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as a condition of total physical, mental, and social wellbeing instead of merely being the absence of illness or disabil­ity [9]. For 75–80% of people worldwide, herbal medicine serves as their main source of healthcare. There are 28,187 species of plants that are utilized as medicines by hu­mans, compared to an estimated 374,000 plants in total. Furthermore, the WHO has recognized over 20,000 species of medicinal plants as potential sources of new medi­cations [10, 11]. The global market for herbal products is valued at over USD 62 billion,
Chapter 12 Medicinal and aromatic plants with antibacterial properties 419
and it is projected to grow to USD 5 trillion by 2050 [12]. In more than 100 countries, regulations have been put in place regarding medicinal plants. Over 30,000 antibacte­rial compounds have been found in plants, and more than 1,340 species have been demonstrated to have particular antibacterial properties, and about 1,500 species are recognized for their flavor and fragrance. Furthermore, 74% of bioactive chemicals generated from plants have been found to be based on ethnomedicinal applications, and 14–28% of the most common plant species are thought to be therapeutic [13–15].

12.2 Definition, historical documents, and distribution related to the study of the usage of MAPs

The phrase “medicinal plants” refers to a wide variety of plants used in herbalism, some of which have therapeutic properties. In less-developed countries, more than
3.3 billion people frequently utilize herbal medicines, which are considered the “back-
bone” of traditional medicine [9, 16]. As the name implies, aromatic plants are those that exude fragrance. Many of them are only utilized in aromatherapy and other med­ical systems for therapeutic purposes. Since they belong to a unique category known to ethnobotanists as medicinal and aromatic plants, or MAP for short, aromatic plants are usually mentioned in conjunction with medicinal plants. Various writers have at tempted to characterize medicinal and aromatic plants traditionally used since ages ago for medicinal purposes using various approaches [17].
Herbal medicine’s historical relevance serves as an example of the long-standing connection between people and nature in the quest for health and wellbeing [18]. Many cultures from all over the world have recognized and made use of plants’ heal­ing properties throughout history. On a 5,000 year-old Sumerian clay slab from Nag­pur, the earliest known written record of the utilization of medicinal herbs to create remedies was found. It had 12 drug preparation directions that cited more than 250 different plants, some of which were alkaloid, including mandrake, henbane, and poppies [19]. The Ebers Papyrus, written approximately 1550 BC, contains 800 pre­scriptions for 700 plant species and therapeutic cures, such as castor oil plants, pome­granates, aloe, garlic, onions, senna, coriander, figs, willows, junipers, and common centaury [20]. Treatments with plants, which are common in India, is mentioned in the Vedas, the country’s sacred texts, around 2000 BC. Many of the spices and plants that are still used today come from India, including cloves, pepper, cinnamon, ginger, and sandalwood [21]. Around 2500 BC, Emperor Shen Nung wrote a book called “Pen T’Sao,” which covered 365 dried sections of medicinal plants, many of which are still in use today. These consist of the big yellow gentian, ephedra, ginseng, jimson weed, Theae folium, Podophyllum, Rhei rhisoma, and camphor [22]. Sixty-three plant species
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420 Alema Dedić et al.
from Minoan, Mycenaean, and Egyptian Assyrian pharmacotherapies were refer­enced in Homer’s epics, The Iliad and The Odyssey, which were composed around 800 BC. Named after the Greek word artemis, which means “healthy,” plants in the genus Artemisia were thought to maintain and regain their health [23]. Moreover, Py­thagoras named the sea onion (Scilla maritima), mustard, and cabbage; Orpheus men­tioned the fragrant garlic and hellebore; and Herodotus (c. 500 BC) recorded the cas­tor oil plant. Hippocrates (459–370 BC) listed 300 medicinal plants based on their physiological action: wormwood and common centaury (Centaurium umbellatum Gilib) were used to treat intestinal parasites and fever; opium, henbane, fragrant hel­lebore, mandrake, sea onion, and garlic were used as narcotics; and celery, asparagus, sea onion, parsley, and garlic were used as diuretics [24, 25]. These are only a few historical facts on the recognition and understanding of MAPs as being essential to humanity.
The WHO reports indicate that 30% of the drugs sold worldwide contain substan­ces derived from plant materials, including over 21,000 species. Throughout the world, aromatic and medicinal plants can be found in America, Europe, Africa, Aus­tralia, and South and Southeast Asia. More than 7,500 species, or half of India’s native plant species, are employed in ethnomedicine there. India is one of the richest sources of MAPs; however, farmers have had limited success in utilizing these plants because they are unaware of their potential and profits. Approximately 6,000 species with therapeutic qualities are used in China. More than 5,000 plant species are used for therapeutic purposes in Africa. In Europe, there are at least 2,000 MAPs in use, two­thirds of which are native to the continent (1,200–1,300). Many of these plants are still being picked in their native environment [26]. Aromatic and therapeutic herbs are also exported in large quantities from Egypt and Turkey. South Asia’s top exporters of MAPs are Japan, China, Hong Kong, Singapore, Korea, and Pakistan. In addition to these nations, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, and the Maldives recognized the value of this sector and are encouraging the commercial expansion of these facilities.

12.3 Antibacterial activity of MAPs

Antibacterial resistance has emerged as a result of the widely distributed, inappropri­ate, irregular, and indiscriminate use of antibiotics, rendering many routinely pre­scribed drugs useless [14, 27]. According to the WHO, this new tendency is alarming and may represent the most pressing problem confronting medical science. Conse­quently, there is an intensifying need to develop novel antibacterial agents that can stop the spread of antibiotic resistance and reduce the usage of antibiotics. Since al­most 50% of modern medicines and nutraceuticals are natural compounds and their derivatives [28], this has prompted scientists to extract and identify novel bioactive molecules from plants that can combat microbial resistance [29, 30]. Numerous meth-
Chapter 12 Medicinal and aromatic plants with antibacterial properties 421
ods have been employed to utilize the nearly limitless supply of bioactive chemicals of medicinal plants as antibacterial agents [31]. However, there is still a lack of com­prehensive research on the substances. To increase antibacterial activity against a va­riety of microorganisms, natural antibacterial compounds can work either alone or in conjunction with antibiotics [32]. Since many medicinal plants’ antibacterial proper­ties are still unknown, researchers are focusing more on finding novel, potent thera­pies that can be developed quickly [33].

12.4 Extracts and essential oils from MAPs as antibacterial agents

Medicinal and aromatic plants are considered potential sources to produce substances that might be used as a replacement for antibiotics to treat bacteria that are resistant to them because they are abundant in a wide range of biologically active compounds, which have been shown to have antibacterial properties in vitro [34].
In addition to their many biological qualities (antioxidant, antibacterial, anti­inflammatory, antifungal, and antiviral properties), MAP extracts and essential oils (EOs) have been screened worldwide as potential sources of new antibacterial com­pounds, alternatives to treat infectious diseases, and agents that help preserve food. The antibacterial chemicals found in medicinal plants may offer a substantial clinical benefit in the treatment of resistant microbial strains and may work differently from currently utilized antibacterials in inhibiting the growth of bacteria, fungi, and vi­ruses. Since Salmonella, Enterococcus, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aerugi- nosa, Escherichia coli, and Shigella are some of the most prevalent multidrug-resistant bacteria that are acquired in hospitals and the community, using plant extracts and essential oils (EOs) as possible antibacterial agents is crucial [35–37].
When used in conjunction with other medications, some of those active com­pounds can help bacteria overcome antibiotic resistance, which is a health issue caused by bacterial resistance to several antibiotics, even though they are not as effec­tive as antibiotics alone. In addition to their natural antibacterial properties, some of those compounds can alter antibiotic resistance. The synergistic activity of the active components in medicinal plant extracts is also associated with the extent to which the extracts inhibit bacterial growth. The emergence of multi-target mechanisms, the presence of substances that can inhibit bacterial resistance mechanisms, and pharma­cokinetic or physicochemical effects that improve bioavailability, solubility, and re­sorption rate, lessen toxicity, and mitigate side effects are some of the effects that con­tribute to the synergistic action [38, 39].
The production and use of EOs is increasing due to their multifunctional applica­tions. Many industries, including pharmacy, medicine, and food preservation, use aro­matic EOs [40]. EOs (volatile oils) are aromatic, oily liquids that are extracted from
Figure 12.1: Clevenger apparatus for extraction of essential oil.
422 Alema Dedić et al.
various plant parts, including leaves, fruits, flowers, wood, buds, twigs, bark, seeds, and roots (Figure 12.1) using the Clevenger device. It is expected that they will create new sources of antibacterial medications, particularly those that target bacteria. Aro­matic oils have been categorized to have good, medium, or poor antibacterial efficacy and have been screened as potential sources of new antibacterial molecules. Further­more, in reaction to external stress, aromatic oils may generate specific secondary metabolites to sustain their typical growth and development [41, 42].
The antibacterial properties of EOs from commonly consumed herbs, such as Lavan-
dula angustifolia, Lavandula latifolia, Citrus aurantium, Citrus limon, Satureja mon­tana, Satureja hortensis, Hyssopus officinalis, Artemisia vulgaris, Clinopodium nepeta, Taxus baccata, Ocimum basilicum, Salvia officinalis, Origanum vulgare, Mentha spi­cata, Mentha piperita, Thymus vulgaris, cinnamon, orange, and lemon, have been
evaluated in many countries. Figure 12.2 shows some of the medicinal and aromatic plants collected from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Türkiye.
A number of chemicals influence drug resistance in different gram-negative bac­terial species by focusing on efflux routes. The majority of research indicates that gram-positive bacteria are more resistant to EOs than gram-negative bacteria [43]. The hydrophobicity of EOs and their constituents is a key characteristic that enables them to interact with the lipids in the mitochondria and bacterial cell membrane, harming the cell structures and increasing their permeability.