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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5217_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
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- •Also of interest
- •Contents
- •Part I: Introduction
- •1.1.2.3 Sustainability and future perspectives
- •1.2 Alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and other active compounds
- •1.2.1 Alkaloids
- •1.2.2 Flavonoids
- •1.2.3 Terpenoids
- •1.2.4 Other active compounds
- •1.3 Chemical structures and pharmacological effects
- •1.3.1 Chemical structures and effects of alkaloids
- •1.3.2 Chemical structures and effects of flavonoids
- •1.3.3 Chemical structures and effects of terpenoids
- •1.3.4 Structures and effects of other compounds
- •1.4.2 Flavonoids
- •1.4.3 Terpenoids
- •1.4.4 Other active compounds
- •1.5 Chemical structures and pharmacological effects
- •1.5.1 Chemical structures and effects of alkaloids
- •1.1 Introduction to medicinal and aromatic plants
- •1.1.1 Historical background
- •1.1.1.1 Historical background
- •1.1.2 Traditional and modern uses
- •1.1.2.1 Traditional uses
- •1.1.2.2 Modern uses
- •1.5.2 Chemical structures and effects of flavonoids
- •1.5.3 Chemical structures and effects of terpenoids
- •1.5.4 Structures and effects of other compounds
- •1.6 Aromatic plants in everyday life
- •1.6.1 The importance of essential oils and aromatherapy
- •1.6.2 Applications in the cosmetics and food industry
- •1.6.3 Food industry
- •1.7.1 Protection of endangered species
- •1.7.2 Sustainable harvesting methods
- •1.8.1 Protection of endangered species
- •1.8.1.1 Threats to endangered species
- •1.8.2 Conservation strategies
- •1.8.2.1 Protection of natural habitats (in situ conservation)
- •1.8.3 Participation of local communities
- •1.8.3.1 Education and awareness
- •1.8.3.2 International collaborations
- •1.8.3.3 Sustainable harvesting and trade
- •1.8.4 Sustainable harvesting methods
- •1.8.4.1 The importance of sustainable harvesting
- •1.8.4.2 Sustainable harvesting principles
- •1.8.4.3 Sustainable harvesting techniques
- •1.8.4.4 Monitoring and evaluating the harvesting process
- •1.8.4.5 The economic dimension of sustainable harvesting
- •1.8.4.6 International approaches and legal regulations
- •1.8.4.6.1 International approaches
- •1.8.4.6.2 Legal regulations
- •1.8.4.6.3 Protection of local communities and traditional knowledge
- •1.8.5 Many countries are protecting biodiversity
- •1.8.5.1 Global conservation efforts
- •1.8.5.2 Protected areas and conservation in natural habitats
- •1.8.5.3 Ex situ conservation and gene banks
- •1.9 Challenges and future prospects
- •1.9.1 Impacts of climate change
- •1.9.2 Genetic and biotechnological approaches
- •1.9.2.1 Protection of genetic diversity and breeding studies
- •1.9.2.2 Genomic and transcriptomic approaches
- •1.9.2.3 Culture tissue techniques
- •1.9.2.4 CRISPR/Cas9 technology
- •1.9.2.5 Metabolic engineering and synthetic biology
- •1.9.2.6 Bioinformatics and data analysis
- •1.10 Case studies and regional practices
- •1.10.1 Successful projects in specific regions
- •1.10.1.1 India: Ayurveda and biodiversity conservation projects
- •1.10.1.2 Brazil: sustainable collection projects in the Amazon forest
- •1.10.1.3 Turkey: protection and production of endemic plants
- •1.10.1.4 Africa: integration of local knowledge with modern practices
- •1.10.2.1 Documentation and protection of traditional knowledge
- •1.10.2.2 Scientific validation and application
- •1.10.2.3 Education and awareness
- •1.10.2.4 Patents and intellectual property rights
- •1.10.2.5 Public and private sector collaboration
- •1.11 Conclusions
- •References
- •2.1 Introduction
- •2.3.1 Plant selection
- •2.3.1.1 Random plant selection
- •2.3.1.2 Plant selection based on ethnopharmacology and traditional uses
- •2.3.1.3 Plant selection by HTS technologies
- •2.3.1.4 Plant selection through virtual screening
- •2.3.1.5 Phytochemical databases
- •2.3.2.1 Comminution and homogenization
- •2.3.3 Extraction
- •2.3.3.1 Conventional extraction techniques
- •2.3.3.2 Maceration
- •2.3.3.3 Infusion
- •2.3.3.4 Decoction
- •2.3.3.5 Percolation
- •2.3.3.13 Pressurized liquid extraction
- •2.3.3.14 Enzyme-assisted extraction
- •2.3.3.15 Solid-phase microextraction
- •2.3.3.6 Hydrodistillation and steam distillation
- •2.3.3.7 Soxhlet extraction
- •2.3.3.8 Advanced extraction techniques
- •2.3.3.9 Ultrasound-assisted extraction
- •2.3.3.10 Pulsed-electric field extraction
- •2.3.3.11 Microwave-assisted extraction
- •2.3.3.12 Supercritical extraction
- •2.3.3.16 Bioassay-guided fractionation of plant extracts
- •2.3.4 Isolation and purification
- •2.3.4.3 Gas chromatography (GC)
- •2.3.4.4 Column chromatography (CC)
- •2.3.4.5 Ion exchange chromatography (IEC)
- •2.3.5 Elucidation of the chemical structure
- •2.3.5.1 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
- •2.3.5.2 Mass spectrometry (MS) and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS)
- •2.3.5.4 UV-visible spectroscopy
- •2.3.6 Evaluation of therapeutic efficacy with bioassays
- •2.3.7 Preclinical and clinical researches
- •2.3.8 Structural modifications and developing new analogues
- •2.4 The use of omics technologies in drug discovery and development
- •2.4.1 Genomics
- •2.4.2 Metabolomics
- •2.4.3 Proteomics
- •2.5 Future scope
- •2.6 Conclusion
- •References
- •3.1 Introduction
- •3.2 Bioactive compounds
- •3.2.1 Alkaloids
- •3.2.2 Terpenoids (terpenes)
- •3.2.3 Phenolics
- •3.3 Industrial importance of biological active compounds
- •3.4 Industrial use of MAPs
- •3.5 Essential oils
- •3.6 MAPs in the dye industry
- •3.6.1 Use of MAPs in the perfumery
- •3.6.2 Use of MAPs in cosmetics
- •3.6.3 Use of MAPs in plastic production
- •3.6.4 Other industrial applications
- •3.6.5 MAPs in energy production
- •3.6.6 MAPs in agricultural applications
- •3.7 Salt stress
- •3.7.1 Nutrient
- •3.7.2 Productivity
- •3.7.3 Photosynthesis
- •3.8 Drought stress
- •3.9 Heavy metals
- •3.10 Heat stress
- •3.11 Soil pH
- •3.12 Light intensity
- •3.13 Pest and disease management
- •3.14 Conclusion and future perspective
- •References
- •4.1 Introduction
- •4.2 Toxic compounds and their effects
- •4.2.1 Alkaloids
- •4.2.2 Glycosides
- •4.2.3 Essential oils
- •4.2.4 Saponins
- •4.2.5 Coumarins
- •4.3 Poisonous medicinal plants
- •4.3.1 Digitalis purpurea (foxglove)
- •4.3.2 Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade)
- •4.3.3 Aconitum napellus (monkshood, aconite)
- •4.3.4 Conium maculatum (hemlock)
- •4.3.5 Nerium oleander (oleander)
- •4.3.6 Datura stramonium (jimsonweed)
- •4.3.7 Ricinus communis (castor bean)
- •4.3.8 Taxus baccata (English yew)
- •4.3.9 Hyoscyamus niger (black henbane)
- •4.3.10 Cicuta virosa (water hemlock)
- •4.3.11 Veratrum viride (false hellebore)
- •4.3.12 Helleborus niger (Christmas rose)
- •4.3.13 Mandragora officinarum (mandrake)
- •4.3.14 Ageratina altissima (white snakeroot)
- •4.3.15 Bryonia alba (white bryony)
- •4.3.16 Colchicum autumnale (autumn crocus)
- •4.3.17 Chelidonium majus Linn. – Papaveraceae
- •4.4 Aromatic plants and poisons
- •4.4.1 Artemisia absinthium (wormwood)
- •4.4.2 Sassafras albidum (sassafras)
- •4.4.3 Lavandula angustifolia (lavender)
- •4.4.4 Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary)
- •4.4.5 Mentha pulegium (pennyroyal)
- •4.4.6 Eucalyptus globulus (eucalyptus)
- •4.4.7 Myristica fragrans (nutmeg)
- •4.4.8 Thuja occidentalis (white cedar)
- •4.4.9 Illicium verum (star anise)
- •4.4.10 Syzygium aromaticum (clove)
- •4.4.11 Juniperus sabina (savin juniper)
- •4.4.12 Pimpinella anisum (anise)
- •4.4.13 Lavandula stoechas (French lavender)
- •4.4.14 Artemisia vulgaris (mugwort)
- •4.4.15 Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree)
- •4.4.16 Pelargonium graveolens (rose geranium)
- •4.5 Safe use and precautions
- •4.5.1 Safety guidelines and precautions
- •4.6 Conclusions
- •References
- •5.1 Introduction
- •5.2 Effect of drought or water deficiency on the morphology of medicinal plants
- •5.4 Effect of drought or water deficiency on secondary metabolites of medicinal plants
- •5.5 Different approaches to mitigate the negative effects of drought stress on plants
- •5.6 Case studies
- •5.7 Conclusions
- •References
- •6.1 Introduction
- •6.2 Importance of medicinal and aromatic plants
- •6.3 Salinity effect on medicinal plants
- •6.3.1 Effects on growth and development
- •6.3.2 Impact on photosynthesis and water relations
- •6.3.3 Ionic stress and nutrient imbalance
- •6.3.4 Oxidative stress and antioxidant response
- •6.3.5 Impact on secondary metabolite production
- •6.4 Molecular responses to salinity stress
- •6.5.1 Amino acids
- •6.5.2 Proteins
- •6.5.3 Carbohydrates
- •6.5.4 Lipids
- •6.6 Study of alkaloids through proteomic and other approaches
- •6.7 Phenolic compounds during stress
- •6.8 Strategies for improving salt tolerance in MAPs
- •6.8.1 Exogenous application of plant growth regulators
- •6.8.2 Use of beneficial microorganisms
- •6.8.3 Genetic approaches
- •6.8.4 CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing
- •6.8.5 Agronomic practices
- •6.8.6 Use of mulches
- •6.8.7 Application of organic amendments
- •6.8.8 Silicon supplementation
- •6.8.9 Application of polyamines
- •6.8.10 Nanofertilizers and nanoparticles
- •6.8.11 Application of melatonin
- •6.9.1 Water relations and osmotic adjustment
- •6.9.2 Ion homeostasis and nutrient balance
- •6.10 Molecular mechanisms of salt tolerance
- •6.11.1 Genetic engineering strategies
- •6.11.2 Identification of salt-tolerant genes
- •6.11.3 Use of plant growth regulators
- •6.12 Conclusion and key points
- •References
- •7.1 Introduction
- •7.2 Heavy metals and their effects on the environment
- •7.4 Processes of heavy metal uptake by roots
- •7.5 Transport and accumulation in various plant tissues
- •7.8 Plant defense mechanisms against heavy metals
- •7.9 Molecular and genetic responses to heavy metal contamination
- •7.11 Selection of heavy metal-resistant plants
- •7.12 Case studies
- •7.13 Conclusions
- •References
- •8.1 Introduction
- •8.2 Metabolic and hormonal responses to abiotic stress
- •8.3 Water stress
- •8.3.1 Drought stress
- •8.3.2 Waterlogging stress
- •8.4 Temperature stress
- •8.4.1 High temperature (heat shock)
- •8.4.2 Low-temperature stress
- •8.5 Light stress
- •8.6 Salt stress
- •8.7 Nutrient stress
- •8.8 Heavy metal stress
- •8.9 Molecular docking calculation for stress
- •8.10 Conclusion
- •References
- •Part III: Pharmaceutical use of medicinal plants
- •9.1 Introduction
- •9.2 General properties of medicinal and aromatic plants used in burn treatment
- •9.2.1 Phytochemical content and mechanisms of action
- •9.2.2 Antimicrobial effects
- •9.2.3 Wound-healing effects
- •9.2.4 Analgesic effects
- •9.2.5 Advantages and disadvantages of herbal treatments
- •9.2.5.1 Advantages
- •9.2.5.2 Disadvantages
- •9.3 Medicinal and aromatic plants used in burn treatment
- •9.3.1 Aloe vera
- •9.3.1.1 Clinical effects
- •9.3.2 Calendula officinalis (Calendula)
- •9.3.3 Centella asiatica (gotu kola)
- •9.4 Molecular basis of plant action mechanisms
- •9.4.1 Cellular mechanisms in wound healing
- •9.4.2 Innovative research methods in herbal treatments
- •9.4.2.1 Omic technologies: genomic, proteomic, and metabolomic approaches
- •9.5 Formulation and application methods of herbal products
- •9.5.1 Pharmaceutical formulations
- •9.5.2 Dosage and application methods
- •9.5.3 Nanotechnological approaches
- •9.5.4 Factors affecting chemical stability
- •9.5.4.1 Stability enhancement methods
- •9.5.4.2 Importance of storage conditions
- •9.5.4.3 Stability tests and quality control
- •9.6 Clinical research and evidence-based practices
- •9.6.1 Clinical studies
- •9.6.2.1 Meta-analyses and literature reviews
- •9.7 Safety and side effects
- •9.7.1 Toxicological risks
- •9.7.2 Side effects and contraindications
- •9.8 Integration of traditional knowledge and modern science
- •9.8.1 Ethnobotany and traditional knowledge
- •9.8.2 Cultural and regional diversity
- •9.9 Future research areas and innovation
- •9.9.1 Pharmacogenetics and personalized medicine
- •9.9.2 Biodegradable and smart materials
- •9.9.3 Combined use of herbal treatments
- •9.10 Conclusion
- •References
- •10.1 Introduction
- •10.2 COPD
- •10.3 Asthma
- •10.4 Pneumonia
- •10.5 Lung cancer
- •References
- •11.1 Introduction
- •11.2 Oxidative stress
- •11.2.1 Reactive oxygen species
- •11.2.2 Sources and generation of free radicals
- •11.3.1 Lipid peroxidation
- •11.3.2 Protein oxidation
- •11.3.3 DNA oxidation
- •11.4 Defense of the organism against ROS
- •11.4.1 Free radicals and antioxidants
- •11.4.2 Antioxidants action mechanism
- •11.5 Methods for determination of antioxidative activity
- •11.5.1 Methods based on hydrogen atom transfer
- •11.5.2 Methods based on electron transfer
- •11.5.3 Other methods for determination of antioxidant potential
- •11.6 Medicinal and aromatic plants as natural antioxidants
- •11.7 MAPs with antioxidant activity
- •11.8 Conclusion
- •References
- •12.1 Introduction
- •12.2 Definition, historical documents, and distribution related to the study of the usage of MAPs
- •12.3 Antibacterial activity of MAPs
- •12.4 Extracts and essential oils from MAPs as antibacterial agents
- •12.5 Compounds of essential oils with antibacterial properties and their activity against a variety of bacterial strains
- •12.6.2 Terpenoids from MAPs as antibacterial agents
- •12.6.3 Alkaloids from MAPs as antibacterial agents
- •12.7.2 Clinopodium nepeta (L). Kuntze
- •12.7.3 Lavandula officinalis
- •12.7.4 Helichrysum italicum
- •12.7.5 Mentha piperita
- •12.8 Conclusion
- •References
- •13.1 Introduction
- •13.2 Medicinal and aromatic plant-derived extracts
- •13.2.1 Extraction techniques of MAPs
- •13.2.2 Influence of extraction operational parameters
- •13.3 MAPs in skin care products
- •13.3.1 MAPs as photoprotective agents against UV light and skin damage
- •13.3.2 Regenerative and wound-healing properties of MAP-derived agents
- •13.3.3 MAPs as skin anti-aging and whitening agents
- •13.4 MAPs in hair cosmetics
- •13.4.1 MAPs in hair products
- •13.4.2 MAPs in hair growth products
- •13.5 MAPs in oral hygiene products
- •13.5.1 Formulations for toothpaste and mouthwash
- •13.5.2 MAPs in prevention of dental caries
- •13.6 MAPs enhanced by sustainable materials in cosmetics
- •13.6.1 Nanotechnology in cosmetic formulations
- •13.6.2 Innovative nanocarrier materials
- •13.7 Conclusion
- •Abbreviations
- •References
- •14.1 Introduction

Chapter 11 Medicinal and aromatic plants with antioxidant properties 413
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Alema Dedić✶, Hurija Džudžević-Čančar, Amra Alispahić,
and Emina Boškailo
Chapter 12
Medicinal and aromatic plants with
antibacterial properties
Abstract: Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) is the collective name for aromatic
plants that belong to the category of medicinal plants. MAPs are becoming more popu
lar around the world due to application in industries like the pharmaceutical business, healthcare products, cosmetics, organic food products, etc. Approximately 40%
of newly approved medications over the past 20 years are made from natural ingre
dients, and most pharmaceutical corporations file patents on medical plants and their
derivatives. These plants contain odorous volatile substances that exist in all their
parts, including the root, wood, bark, stem, foliage, flower, and fruit, and are responsi
ble for the distinctive fragrance. Extracts and essential oils are the most common applications of MAPs. Essential oils are complex volatile compounds, naturally synthesized by various parts of the plant during the secondary metabolism of plants, and
have the ability to inhibit the growth of a wide range of pathogenic microorganisms.
The knowledge of their medicinal qualities has been handed down by human socie
ties. The aim of this article is to focus on the antibacterial activities of compounds
from MAPs and the possible mechanisms involved in the inhibition of a variety of
bacterial strains as their chemical potential. Plants hold great promise as a source of
novel antibacterial agents due to a wide variety of chemically and structurally diverse
secondary metabolites such as polyphenols, terpenoids, and alkaloids. Historical re
cords and modern investigations highlight the importance of plant products in the
treatment of various diseases caused by bacteria. Medicinal plant-derived compounds
could provide novel, straightforward approaches against pathogenic bacteria.
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-
-
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Keywords: medicinal and aromatic plant, antibacterial activity, polyphenols, terpenoids, alkaloids
✶
Corresponding author:
Sarajevo-Faculty of Pharmacy, Zmaja od Bosne 8, Sarajevo 71000, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
e-mail: alema.dedic@ffsa.unsa.ba
Hurija Džudžević-Čančar, Amra Alispahić, Department of Chemistry in Pharmacy, University of
Sarajevo-Faculty of Pharmacy, Zmaja od Bosne 8, Sarajevo 71000, Bosnia and Herzegovina
e-mail:
alema.dedic@ffsa.unsa.ba
Emina Boškailo, Department of Ecology and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Social Sciences
Dr. Milenko Brkić, Herzegovina University, Mostar 88000, Bosnia and Herzegovina; International Society
of Engineering Science and Technology, Nottingham, UK
Alema Dedić, Department of Chemistry in Pharmacy, University of

418 Alema Dedić et al.
12.1 Introduction
Almost every culture has utilized medicinal plants as a source of treatment for different issues. In both developed and developing nations, ensuring the efficacy, safety,
and quality of medical plants and herbal products has emerged as a crucial concern.
Over the years, between human societies, the knowledge of their medicinal qualities
has been carried down [1]. All around the world, medicinal plants have long been
used to cure a wide range of ailments, including asthma, gastrointestinal disorders,
skin disorders, respiratory and urinary problems, and cardiovascular and hepatic diseases. To live and thrive in their natural habitat, these plants create a range of physiologically active substances, including defenses against abiotic stresses brought on by
temperature, water quality, nutrition and mineral availability, and insect pests. The
species of the plant, the kind of soil, and the relationship between the plant and microbes all affect the physiologically active chemicals found in medicinal plants [2-4].
The chemical reactions of plant-associated microbial communities can also be significantly impacted by secondary metabolites produced by aromatic and medicinal plants
[5, 6]. Aromatic plant species’ biological traits are frequently attributed to active molecules generated during secondary metabolism. Essential oils, which are utilized for
many different reasons around the world, including the treatment of infectious diseases, are mostly extracted from these components. Thanks to a growing number of
papers on dangerous bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics, antimicrobial qualities
of many plants that were once thought to be empirical have now been scientifically
verified. In a variety of situations, plant-based products are able to regulate microbial
development. The chemical composition of these plant antibacterials and the mechanisms underlying their capacity to suppress microbial growth in the particular context of disease therapy, either by themselves or in combination with traditional antibiotics, have been the subject of several research [7, 8].
Traditional medical methods have gained international attention in the last decade. According to current estimates, an important segment of human beings in many
developing nations primarily depends on traditional healers and medicinal herbs to
cover their basic medical needs. For historical and cultural reasons, herbal medicines
have frequently maintained their popularity even when modern medicine is available
in certain nations. Many times, medicinal plants are utilized as raw materials to extract the active compounds needed to make various medications. Plant-based compounds are used in blood thinners, antibiotics, antimalarial drugs, and laxatives. The
World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as a condition of total physical,
mental, and social wellbeing instead of merely being the absence of illness or disability [9]. For 75–80% of people worldwide, herbal medicine serves as their main source
of healthcare. There are 28,187 species of plants that are utilized as medicines by humans, compared to an estimated 374,000 plants in total. Furthermore, the WHO has
recognized over 20,000 species of medicinal plants as potential sources of new medications [10, 11]. The global market for herbal products is valued at over USD 62 billion,

Chapter 12 Medicinal and aromatic plants with antibacterial properties 419
and it is projected to grow to USD 5 trillion by 2050 [12]. In more than 100 countries,
regulations have been put in place regarding medicinal plants. Over 30,000 antibacterial compounds have been found in plants, and more than 1,340 species have been
demonstrated to have particular antibacterial properties, and about 1,500 species are
recognized for their flavor and fragrance. Furthermore, 74% of bioactive chemicals
generated from plants have been found to be based on ethnomedicinal applications,
and 14–28% of the most common plant species are thought to be therapeutic [13–15].
12.2 Definition, historical documents, and distribution related to the study of the usage of MAPs
The phrase “medicinal plants” refers to a wide variety of plants used in herbalism,
some of which have therapeutic properties. In less-developed countries, more than
3.3 billion people frequently utilize herbal medicines, which are considered the “back-
bone” of traditional medicine [9, 16]. As the name implies, aromatic plants are those
that exude fragrance. Many of them are only utilized in aromatherapy and other medical systems for therapeutic purposes. Since they belong to a unique category known
to ethnobotanists as medicinal and aromatic plants, or MAP for short, aromatic plants
are usually mentioned in conjunction with medicinal plants. Various writers have at
tempted to characterize medicinal and aromatic plants traditionally used since ages
ago for medicinal purposes using various approaches [17].
Herbal medicine’s historical relevance serves as an example of the long-standing
connection between people and nature in the quest for health and wellbeing [18].
Many cultures from all over the world have recognized and made use of plants’ healing properties throughout history. On a 5,000 year-old Sumerian clay slab from Nagpur, the earliest known written record of the utilization of medicinal herbs to create
remedies was found. It had 12 drug preparation directions that cited more than 250
different plants, some of which were alkaloid, including mandrake, henbane, and
poppies [19]. The Ebers Papyrus, written approximately 1550 BC, contains 800 prescriptions for 700 plant species and therapeutic cures, such as castor oil plants, pomegranates, aloe, garlic, onions, senna, coriander, figs, willows, junipers, and common
centaury [20]. Treatments with plants, which are common in India, is mentioned in
the Vedas, the country’s sacred texts, around 2000 BC. Many of the spices and plants
that are still used today come from India, including cloves, pepper, cinnamon, ginger,
and sandalwood [21]. Around 2500 BC, Emperor Shen Nung wrote a book called “Pen
T’Sao,” which covered 365 dried sections of medicinal plants, many of which are still
in use today. These consist of the big yellow gentian, ephedra, ginseng, jimson weed,
Theae folium, Podophyllum, Rhei rhisoma, and camphor [22]. Sixty-three plant species
-

420 Alema Dedić et al.
from Minoan, Mycenaean, and Egyptian Assyrian pharmacotherapies were referenced in Homer’s epics, The Iliad and The Odyssey, which were composed around
800 BC. Named after the Greek word artemis, which means “healthy,” plants in the
genus Artemisia were thought to maintain and regain their health [23]. Moreover, Pythagoras named the sea onion (Scilla maritima), mustard, and cabbage; Orpheus mentioned the fragrant garlic and hellebore; and Herodotus (c. 500 BC) recorded the castor oil plant. Hippocrates (459–370 BC) listed 300 medicinal plants based on their
physiological action: wormwood and common centaury (Centaurium umbellatum
Gilib) were used to treat intestinal parasites and fever; opium, henbane, fragrant hellebore, mandrake, sea onion, and garlic were used as narcotics; and celery, asparagus,
sea onion, parsley, and garlic were used as diuretics [24, 25]. These are only a few
historical facts on the recognition and understanding of MAPs as being essential to
humanity.
The WHO reports indicate that 30% of the drugs sold worldwide contain substances derived from plant materials, including over 21,000 species. Throughout the
world, aromatic and medicinal plants can be found in America, Europe, Africa, Australia, and South and Southeast Asia. More than 7,500 species, or half of India’s native
plant species, are employed in ethnomedicine there. India is one of the richest sources
of MAPs; however, farmers have had limited success in utilizing these plants because
they are unaware of their potential and profits. Approximately 6,000 species with
therapeutic qualities are used in China. More than 5,000 plant species are used for
therapeutic purposes in Africa. In Europe, there are at least 2,000 MAPs in use, twothirds of which are native to the continent (1,200–1,300). Many of these plants are still
being picked in their native environment [26]. Aromatic and therapeutic herbs are
also exported in large quantities from Egypt and Turkey. South Asia’s top exporters of
MAPs are Japan, China, Hong Kong, Singapore, Korea, and Pakistan. In addition to
these nations, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, and the Maldives recognized the
value of this sector and are encouraging the commercial expansion of these facilities.
12.3 Antibacterial activity of MAPs
Antibacterial resistance has emerged as a result of the widely distributed, inappropriate, irregular, and indiscriminate use of antibiotics, rendering many routinely prescribed drugs useless [14, 27]. According to the WHO, this new tendency is alarming
and may represent the most pressing problem confronting medical science. Consequently, there is an intensifying need to develop novel antibacterial agents that can
stop the spread of antibiotic resistance and reduce the usage of antibiotics. Since almost 50% of modern medicines and nutraceuticals are natural compounds and their
derivatives [28], this has prompted scientists to extract and identify novel bioactive
molecules from plants that can combat microbial resistance [29, 30]. Numerous meth-

Chapter 12 Medicinal and aromatic plants with antibacterial properties 421
ods have been employed to utilize the nearly limitless supply of bioactive chemicals
of medicinal plants as antibacterial agents [31]. However, there is still a lack of comprehensive research on the substances. To increase antibacterial activity against a variety of microorganisms, natural antibacterial compounds can work either alone or in
conjunction with antibiotics [32]. Since many medicinal plants’ antibacterial properties are still unknown, researchers are focusing more on finding novel, potent therapies that can be developed quickly [33].
12.4 Extracts and essential oils from MAPs as antibacterial agents
Medicinal and aromatic plants are considered potential sources to produce substances
that might be used as a replacement for antibiotics to treat bacteria that are resistant
to them because they are abundant in a wide range of biologically active compounds,
which have been shown to have antibacterial properties in vitro [34].
In addition to their many biological qualities (antioxidant, antibacterial, antiinflammatory, antifungal, and antiviral properties), MAP extracts and essential oils
(EOs) have been screened worldwide as potential sources of new antibacterial compounds, alternatives to treat infectious diseases, and agents that help preserve food.
The antibacterial chemicals found in medicinal plants may offer a substantial clinical
benefit in the treatment of resistant microbial strains and may work differently from
currently utilized antibacterials in inhibiting the growth of bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Since Salmonella, Enterococcus, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aerugi-
nosa, Escherichia coli, and Shigella are some of the most prevalent multidrug-resistant
bacteria that are acquired in hospitals and the community, using plant extracts and
essential oils (EOs) as possible antibacterial agents is crucial [35–37].
When used in conjunction with other medications, some of those active compounds can help bacteria overcome antibiotic resistance, which is a health issue
caused by bacterial resistance to several antibiotics, even though they are not as effective as antibiotics alone. In addition to their natural antibacterial properties, some of
those compounds can alter antibiotic resistance. The synergistic activity of the active
components in medicinal plant extracts is also associated with the extent to which the
extracts inhibit bacterial growth. The emergence of multi-target mechanisms, the
presence of substances that can inhibit bacterial resistance mechanisms, and pharmacokinetic or physicochemical effects that improve bioavailability, solubility, and resorption rate, lessen toxicity, and mitigate side effects are some of the effects that contribute to the synergistic action [38, 39].
The production and use of EOs is increasing due to their multifunctional applications. Many industries, including pharmacy, medicine, and food preservation, use aromatic EOs [40]. EOs (volatile oils) are aromatic, oily liquids that are extracted from

Figure 12.1: Clevenger apparatus for extraction of essential oil.
422 Alema Dedić et al.
various plant parts, including leaves, fruits, flowers, wood, buds, twigs, bark, seeds,
and roots (Figure 12.1) using the Clevenger device. It is expected that they will create
new sources of antibacterial medications, particularly those that target bacteria. Aromatic oils have been categorized to have good, medium, or poor antibacterial efficacy
and have been screened as potential sources of new antibacterial molecules. Furthermore, in reaction to external stress, aromatic oils may generate specific secondary
metabolites to sustain their typical growth and development [41, 42].
The antibacterial properties of EOs from commonly consumed herbs, such as Lavan-
dula angustifolia, Lavandula latifolia, Citrus aurantium, Citrus limon, Satureja montana, Satureja hortensis, Hyssopus officinalis, Artemisia vulgaris, Clinopodium nepeta,
Taxus baccata, Ocimum basilicum, Salvia officinalis, Origanum vulgare, Mentha spicata, Mentha piperita, Thymus vulgaris, cinnamon, orange, and lemon, have been
evaluated in many countries. Figure 12.2 shows some of the medicinal and aromatic
plants collected from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Türkiye.
A number of chemicals influence drug resistance in different gram-negative bacterial species by focusing on efflux routes. The majority of research indicates that
gram-positive bacteria are more resistant to EOs than gram-negative bacteria [43].
The hydrophobicity of EOs and their constituents is a key characteristic that enables
them to interact with the lipids in the mitochondria and bacterial cell membrane,
harming the cell structures and increasing their permeability.
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