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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5217_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
O
H
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
O
H
H
Figure 1.5: Molecular structure of quercetin.
N
N
Figure 1.4: Molecular structure of nicotine.
Chapter 1 The importance of medicinal and aromatic plants for living things 13
1.5.2 Chemical structures and effects of flavonoids
Flavonoids are polyphenolic compounds built on the C6-C3-C6 skeleton. This structure
has strong antioxidant properties [54, 55]:
1. Quercetin: The presence of 3-OH and 5-OH groups increases the radical scavenging
capacity. The molecular structure of quercetin is given in Figure 1.5.
2. Anthocyanins: They contain sugar molecules connected by glycosidic bonds, which
increases water solubility and optimizes bioavailability. The molecular structure of anthocyanıns is given in Figure 1.6.
Figure 1.7: Molecular structure of limonene.
H
O
Figure 1.8: Molecular structure of menthol.
O
+
Figure 1.6: Molecular structure of anthocyanıns.
14 Gamze Tüzün et al.
1.5.3 Chemical structures and effects of terpenoids
Terpenoids consist of isoprene units and their pharmacological activities vary depending on their structure [41, 43, 56]:
1. Limonene: It has a monoterpene structure containing double bonds and has antimicrobial and anticancer properties. The molecular structure of limonene is given in Figure 1.7.
2. Menthol: Menthol, a cyclic monoterpene, shows its cooling effect by activating
TRPM8 receptors. The molecular structure of menthol is given in Figure 1.8.
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
Figure 1.9: Molecular structure of beta-carotene.
Chapter 1 The importance of medicinal and aromatic plants for living things 15
3. Beta-carotene: Its structure, containing conjugated double bonds, plays a leading
role in the production of vitamin A and supports eye health. The molecular structure
of beta-carotene is given in Figure 1.9.
1.5.4 Structures and effects of other compounds
1. Tannins: It has a polyphenolic structure and prevents the growth of microorganisms
by binding with proteins. The molecular structure of tannic acid is given in Figure 1.10.
2. Saponins: It contains triterpene structures connected by glycosidic bonds and stabilizes the cell membrane.
3. Glucosinolates: Their sulfur-containing structures activate detoxification enzymes
and neutralize toxins.
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
Figure 1.10: Molecular structure of tannic acid.
16 Gamze Tüzün et al.
1.6 Aromatic plants in everyday life
Aromatic plants have been a part of our cultural heritage from the past to the present
and have played an indispensable role in human life in the fields of medicine, cosmetics, and food [57]. Thanks to the volatile oils and other active ingredients they contain,
these plants not only emit pleasant scents, but also offer many benefits in different
areas such as health, beauty, and taste. In particular, the importance of essential oils
and aromatherapy and applications in the cosmetics and food industry allow us to
better understand the effects of aromatic plants in our daily lives [58, 59].
Chapter 1 The importance of medicinal and aromatic plants for living things 17
1.6.1 The importance of essential oils and aromatherapy
Essential oils are extremely dense and effective natural compounds that carry the essence
of aromatic plants [60]. They are usually obtained from the leaves, flowers, barks, roots, or
resins of plants by methods such as steam distillation, cold pressing, or solvent extraction
[61]. These oils contain chemical components that plants produce to protect themselves
from pests, to communicate with other living things, or to adapt to environmental stresses.
Aromatherapy is a natural treatment method in which essential oils are used to
support physical, mental, and emotional balance [62]. In aromatherapy, essential oils
are usually used by inhalation, topical application as massage oil, or by mixing them
into the air through diffusers. Table 1.2 lists the many applications for essential oils
used in aromatherapy. The main benefits of aromatherapy are:
1. Stress and anxiety management: Essential oils such as lavender, bergamot, and
ylang-ylang are known for their calming effects. Inhaling these oils reduces stress
hormones and creates a sense of relaxation. Aromatherapy, especially used during meditation or yoga, can increase mental calmness.
2. Improving sleep quality: Lavender oil is a common solution for individuals with
sleep problems. Putting a few drops of lavender oil on your pillow in the evening
or spreading it into the air through a diffuser creates an environment for deep
and peaceful sleep.
3. Strengthening the immune system: Oils such as thyme, tea tree, and eucalyptus
protect the body against infections, thanks to their antimicrobial properties. Inhaling or topically applying these oils, especially during cold and flu season, supports the immune system.
4. Pain- and muscle-relaxing effects: Peppermint, rosemary, and ginger oils offer effective natural solutions for relieving problems such as muscle pain and headaches. Peppermint oil provides relief when used by massaging the temples, especially in migraine attacks.
5. Mental vitality and concentration: Lemon, orange, and rosemary oils reduce mental fatigue and increase focus. These oils have a productivity-increasing effect
when used in the work environment.
Table 1.2: Areas of use of essential oils used in aromatherapy [61].
Essential oil Usage areas Action mechanism
Lavender oil Stress and anxiety reducer, sleep regulator, headache
reliever, and skin care
Peppermint oil Energy booster, concentration enhancer, headache
reliever, and muscle relaxant
Ylang-Ylang oil Mood stabilizer, blood pressure lowering, and
aphrodisiac
Relaxing and calming
properties
Cooling and invigorating
effect
Calming and relaxing
properties
18 Gamze Tüzün et al.
Table 1.2 (continued)
Essential oil Usage areas Action mechanism
Lemon oil Energy booster, offers mental clarity, and natural
cleanser
Eucalyptus oil Respiratory tract opener, nasal congestion reliever, and
mental relief
Bergamot oil Stress and anxiety reducer, and mood enhancer Mild stimulating and
Tea tree oil Antiseptic and relieves skin problems (acne and
infection)
Sandalwood oil Meditation support, relaxing, and skin moisturizer Grounding and calming
Rose oil Emotional balancer, aphrodisiac, and skin care Soothing and refreshing
Rosemary oil Memory enhancer, mental clarity enhancer, and muscle
pain reliever
Refreshing and purifying
properties
Refreshing and cleansing
effect
balancing properties
Antimicrobial and healing
properties
properties
Stimulating and circulatory
properties
Aromatherapy creates positive effects not only on physical health but also on emotional
balance. In today’s fast-paced living conditions, these natural solutions offered by aromatherapy play an important role in improving the quality of life of individuals.
1.6.2 Applications in the cosmetics and food industry
Volatile oils and other active ingredients obtained from aromatic plants have a wide
range of uses in the cosmetics and food industries [63, 64]. These ingredients are in
great demand in modern formulations because they are both natural and effective
[65]. The areas of use of the essential oil of the aromatic plant in cosmetics are shown
in Figure 1.11:
1 Cosmetics industry: Aromatic plants are widely used in skin and hair care prod-
ucts, perfumes, and spa therapies. The main advantages of essential oils in the
cosmetic field are as follows:
2 Skin care: Essential oils such as lavender, tea tree, and rose oil have antioxidant
and anti-inflammatory properties. These oils are effective in treating acne, maintaining the moisture balance of the skin, and reducing the signs of aging.
3 Natural fragrances: As an alternative to synthetic perfumes, essential oils offer
pleasant and natural scents. For example, oils such as jasmine and sandalwood
are among the main components of luxury perfumes.
4 Hair care: Rosemary and mint oils nourish the scalp, reduce hair loss, and pro-
mote hair growth. They are also effective in eliminating dandruff problems.
Volatile
Oil
Natural
fragrances
Hair Care
Skin
Care
Cosmetics
Figure 1.11: Uses of essential oil of aromatic plant in cosmetics.
FOOD INDUSTRY
Preservative
Oil
Production
and
Extraction
Flavoring
Beverage
Production
Colorant
Sweetener
Functional
Food
Ingredient
Figure 1.12: Use of medicinal and aromatic plants in the food sector.
Chapter 1 The importance of medicinal and aromatic plants for living things 19
In spa therapies, the use of essential oils in massage and steam applications provides
both a relaxing experience and supports skin health.
1.6.3 Food industry
Aromatic plants are indispensable in the food industry as flavor and aroma enhancers.
Extracts obtained from plants such as thyme, rosemary, mint, and basil add characteristic flavors to dishes and drinks while also offering protective properties [66]. The use of
MAPs in the food sector is shown in Figure 1.12:
20 Gamze Tüzün et al.
1. Natural preservatives: Rosemary extract delays the oxidation of fats in foods, extending their shelf life. These extracts, used as an alternative to synthetic preservatives, are both healthy and environmentally friendly.
2. Taste and aroma additives: Ingredients obtained from aromatic plants such as
lemongrass, mint, and vanilla enrich the flavor profile of chocolate, ice cream,
candy, and beverages.
3. Functional foods: Some ingredients obtained from aromatic plants can enhance
the health benefits of foods. For example, the antioxidant properties of plants
such as turmeric and ginger are widely used in functional foods.
Essential oils obtained from aromatic plants offer sustainable solutions in both the
cosmetic and food industries with their naturalness and versatile uses.
1.7 Protection and sustainable use of medicinal
and aromatic plants
MAPs are natural resources that people have used for thousands of years to improve
their health, beauty, and quality of life [67]. These plants play an important role in a
wide range of areas, from modern medicines to traditional treatment methods, and
from cosmetic products to food additives. However, the high demand for these plants
and the various pressures that ecosystems face put many MAP species at risk of extinction. The protection of these endangered species and the development of sustainable harvesting methods not only ensure the continuity of these plants but also contribute to the preservation of ecosystem balances [68].
1.7.1 Protection of endangered species
MAPs are very important both because of their direct economic value and their ecological role [69]. However, factors such as over-collection, habitat loss, climate change,
and agricultural expansion threaten many plant species. The Red List prepared by the
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is an important guide on endangered species and it is seen that many medicinal plants are included in this list
[70]. For this reason, various conservation strategies have been developed to protect
these species.
Conservation strategies generally include both in situ (in natural environment) and
ex situ (outside natural environment) methods [71]. In situ conservation involves protecting the natural habitats of threatened plants. This method supports the survival and reproduction of plants in their natural ecosystems. National parks, biosphere reserves,
Chapter 1 The importance of medicinal and aromatic plants for living things 21
and special protection areas are effective tools for in situ conservation. Protecting plants
in these areas also helps protect other elements of biodiversity.
Ex situ conservation aims to protect threatened plants in environments outside
their natural habitats [72]. Seed banks, botanical gardens, and genetic material storage projects are the most common methods of ex situ conservation. For example, the
seeds of a plant can be saved and reintroduced to nature in the coming years. Similarly, the cultivation and production of these species in botanical gardens makes significant contributions to the preservation of genetic diversity.
The role of local communities is also critical in the protection of endangered species.
Traditional knowledge helps us understand the importance of these plants in the natural
ecosystem [69]. Actively involving local people in conservation projects ensures both sustainable use of these species and in awareness raising. Education and awareness-raising
programs support communities to participate more effectively in conservation efforts.
1.7.2 Sustainable harvesting methods
Intensive collection of MAPs threatens the natural populations of many species [73]. Uncontrolled harvesting not only causes plant populations to decline, but also disrupts ecosystem balances. Therefore, the development and implementation of sustainable harvesting methods are of great importance for the protection of these valuable resources [74].
Sustainable harvesting methods involve collection processes that respect the regenerative capacity of plants without harming nature. For this, it is necessary to first understand the biology and ecology of plants. When deciding which part (e.g., leaves,
roots, flowers) to use and the amount to be harvested, the plant’s growth cycle and population density should be taken into account.
The following basic principles should be observed during the harvesting process:
a. Only a certain part of the plants should be taken and the rest should be left in
their natural habitat.
b. Harvesting should not be done during certain periods so as to allow the popula-
tion to regenerate.
c. Harvested areas should be rehabilitated to support the continuity of the natural cycle.
Timing is a critical factor in sustainable harvesting. For example, if seeds are used,
plants should be allowed to complete their reproductive cycle. Otherwise, natural
population renewal may not be possible. Similarly, in plants where roots are used, it
is necessary to leave a portion of each plant’s root rather than removing the entire
root, for the continuity of the population.
Modern technologies also support sustainable harvesting methods. Tools such as
remote sensing and geographic information systems allow plant populations to be
monitored and harvest plans to be optimized. These technologies also provide more
accurate data on the geographical distribution and ecological needs of plants.
22 Gamze Tüzün et al.
The role of local people in this process includes both the correct application of
collection methods and the support to sustainability [74]. Traditional methods and
knowledge can be combined with modern scientific approaches to achieve more effective results. The economic benefits provided by local communities also increase interest in these processes [75]. However, it is of great importance that such benefits are
organized in a way that they do not harm nature.
1.8 Conservation and sustainable use of medicinal
and aromatic plants
1.8.1 Protection of endangered species
MAPs are among the important resources for human health and quality of life [67].
Used for thousands of years in traditional medicine, religious rituals, cosmetics, and
the food industry, these plants are one of the most valuable gifts that nature has offered to humanity [76]. However, in recent years, due to high demand for these plants,
habitat destruction, and climate change, many species have become endangered. The
protection of endangered plant species is of critical importance not only for the continuity of these valuable natural resources, but also for the preservation of ecosystem
balance and maintenance of biodiversity [69].
1.8.1.1 Threats to endangered species
The main reasons why MAPs are under threat include:
1. Over-collection: Excessive and uncontrolled collection, especially for commercial
purposes, seriously reduces the natural populations of many plant species. Incor-
rect practices during the collection of roots, leaves, flowers, or seeds of plants pre-
vent plants from completing their natural cycles and make it difficult for them to
regenerate [71].
2. Habitat loss and destruction: Human activities such as agriculture, urbanization,
industrial expansion, and mining cause the natural habitats of MAPs to disappear.
Habitat loss reduces the survival chances of these species and seriously disrupts
ecosystem balances [77].
3. Climate change: Global warming and other climatic changes negatively affect the
living conditions of many plant species. In particular, temperature increases,
changes in precipitation regimes, and extreme weather events seriously threaten
the distribution and population density of MAPs [78].
4. Unconscious agriculture and chemical use: Pesticides and fertilizers used in agri-
cultural activities can have toxic effects on many plant species. In addition, mono-