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Chapter 2 Methods of obtaining drugs from medicinal and aromatic plants 113
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Fatemeh Ahmadi✶, Maximilian Lackner, and August Starzinger
Chapter 3
Challenges encountered in growing
medicinal and aromatic plants
Abstract: Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) are invaluable resources, widely uti-
lized across diverse industries, including pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, agriculture, and
food production, due to their rich composition of bioactive compounds such as alkaloids, terpenoids, and phenolics. These compounds possess potent medicinal properties,
including antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities, making them essential in the health and wellness sectors. Despite their economic and therapeutic significance, the cultivation of MAPs presents multifaceted challenges. Environmental stresses, including salinity, drought, heat, and soil pH imbalances, significantly
affect their growth, metabolism, and the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, which
are critical for their bioactivity. This chapter provides a comprehensive analysis of the
physiological and biochemical responses of MAPs to various abiotic stresses, highlighting the intricate mechanisms plants use to adapt and survive under unfavorable conditions. It explores the role of stress in modulating secondary metabolite production,
often enhancing their concentration but at the potential cost of biomass yield. Additionally, the chapter delves into the industrial applications of MAP-derived compounds, emphasizing their importance in pharmaceuticals for drug development, cosmetics for natural formulations, and agriculture for eco-friendly pest and disease management
solutions. Strategies for mitigating challenges in MAP cultivation are discussed, including integrated pest management, sustainable soil and water management practices, and
the optimization of light intensity. Emerging technologies such as precision agriculture,
genetic and epigenetic modifications, and advanced metabolomics approaches are presented as potential solutions to enhance MAP productivity and quality. The chapter also
addresses global issues, including the impact of climate change on MAP cultivation, regulatory hurdles, and the need for equitable benefit-sharing in the use of traditional medicinal plants. By integrating traditional knowledge with modern scientific advancements, this chapter underscores the potential of MAPs to contribute to sustainable
agricultural practices and produce high-quality medicinal compounds. Future perspectives emphasize the importance of interdisciplinary research to overcome the chal-
*
Corresponding author: Fatemeh Ahmadi, School of Agriculture and Environment, University of
Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia, e-mail: fatemeh.ahmadi@uwa.edu.au
Maximilian Lackner, University of Applied Sciences Technikum Wien, Hoechstaedtplatz 6, 1200 Vienna,
Austria
August Starzinger, Canngoo GmbH i.G., Rainerstraße 36, 5310 Mondsee, Austria
120 Fatemeh Ahmadi, Maximilian Lackner, and August Starzinger
lenges in MAP cultivation, ensuring their continued role in supporting global health,
environmental sustainability, and economic development.
Keywords: bioactive compounds, industrial applications, secondary metabolites, salinity stress, sustainable agriculture
3.1 Introduction
Plants possess the remarkable ability to transform water, minerals, and other soil elements into complex compounds essential for their metabolism [1]. These bioactive
substances, including essential oils, alkaloids, tannins, and bitter compounds, not only
benefit the plants themselves but also offer significant advantages to human health
[2]. These natural compounds can enhance immune function and support various
organ systems in the human body, positively impacting tissues and organs [3].
Despite rapid advancements in modern medicine, the use of natural remedies
persists. Concerns about synthetic medication side effects and chemical additives
have led many to prefer medicinal plants as alternatives [4]. The terms “medicinal”
and “aromatic” are frequently used in conjunction to describe these herbs, generally
referring to plants containing bioactive compounds with therapeutic and fragrant
properties that can positively affect human and animal physiology [5].
Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) serve multiple purposes, from disease prevention and health maintenance to industrial applications. Their uses span various sectors, including nutrition, cosmetics, personal care, religious rituals, and the food, pharmaceutical, and perfume industries [6]. The range of active ingredients in MAPs is
extensive, and while no standardized classification exists, they can be categorized
based on their families, active components, intended uses, or pharmaceutical effects [7].
3.2 Bioactive compounds
Plant metabolites are typically categorized as primary or secondary, with proteins
and nucleic acids excluded from this classification. Primary metabolites, such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, are crucial for basic plant functions [8]. Secondary metabolites, however, are diverse compounds found in smaller quantities and are not
essential for plant survival [9].
The stems and leaves of most MAPs are rich in secondary metabolites, with varied
physiological activities. These compounds are generally classified into three main
groups: phenolic compounds, terpenoids/terpenes, and alkaloids [10]. Common secondary metabolites in MAPs include essential oils, glycosides, steroids, saponins, flavonoids, tannins, phenols, pigments, and resins, with over 30,000 distinct types identi-
Figure 3.1: Classification of secondary metabolites in medicinal plants.
Chapter 3 Challenges encountered in growing medicinal and aromatic plants 121
fied in plants (Figure 3.1). Additionally, MAPs may contain polyphenols, kinins, flavanols/flavonoids, polypeptides, or their oxygenated derivatives. Some of these compounds may work synergistically, enhancing their biological effects [11].
3.2.1 Alkaloids
Alkaloids are nitrogen-containing compounds, typically with a ring structure, that exhibit alkaline properties and potent physiological effects [12]. Usually found in plants,
these compounds often exist as salts with minerals or organic acids, and rarely in free
form within plant cells. While alkaloids can have medicinal benefits when used correctly, misuse can lead to severe consequences [13]. Examples include morphine from
Papaver somniferum, cocaine from coca plants, nicotine from tobacco, and theobromine from cacao, all of which have addictive potential.
3.2.2 Terpenoids (terpenes)
Terpenoids are fundamental components of essential oils, composed of 5-carbon isoprene units. The number of isoprene units determines their structure, ranging from
monoterpenes to tetraterpenes. Monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes are prevalent in essential oils, with monoterpenoids often responsible for a plant’s scent and flavor. Sesquiterpenes are known for their antimicrobial and antitumoral properties [14].
Diterpenoids are found in resins and include the plant growth hormone gibberellin. Triterpenoids, like cucurbitacins and limonoids, play crucial ecological roles in
plant defense against herbivores and insects [15]. For instance, azadirachtin from Aza-
122 Fatemeh Ahmadi, Maximilian Lackner, and August Starzinger
dirachta indica is a potent natural insecticide. Tetraterpenoids form carotenoids,
which produce yellow, orange, red, and purple plant pigments and have significant
commercial applications in food, feed, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics [16].
3.2.3 Phenolics
Phenolic compounds, characterized by hydroxyl groups attached to aromatic rings, are
crucial for various plant functions including growth, development, pollination, and defense mechanisms [17]. These compounds exhibit potent antioxidant properties, making
them valuable in preventing cardiovascular diseases, cancer, inflammation, and cellular
mutations in table 3.1. Phenolics encompass a wide range of substances such as benzoquinones, phenolic acids, acetophenones, anthraquinones, flavonoids, lignin, flavonol, and
tannins [18]. Flavonoids, a subgroup containing flavones, flavonol, and anthocyanins, contribute to plant coloration, protect cells from oxidative stress, and attract pollinators [19].
Tea leaves are rich in phenolics, particularly catechins and theaflavins, while artichoke
contains snaring, which promotes liver cell regeneration [20]. Silymarin, derived from
thistle seeds, is utilized in liver treatments. Essential oils, complex mixtures of numerous
compounds, are another important plant product. For instance, rose oil contains over a
hundred constituents, with citronellol, neral, and geraniol being key components [21].
Other plants like fennel and anise are rich in menthol, thyme species contain carvacrol,
lavender has linalyl acetate, mint contains menthol, and melissa has neral. Medical sage
is high in thujone, while marjoram is known for its thymol content [22].
Table 3.1: Classification of secondary metabolites in medicinal and aromatic plants [161].
Class Subcategories Examples Biological activities
Phenolics Flavonoids, tannins, and
lignins
Terpenoids Monoterpenes and
sesquiterpenes
Alkaloids Tropanes, isoquinolines,
and indoles
Catechins (tea) and
resveratrol
Limonene (citrus) and
carotenoids
Morphine (poppy) and
vinblastine
Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory
Antimicrobial, insecticidal, and
hormonal regulation
Analgesic, anticancer, and
neurological effects
3.3 Industrial importance of biological active compounds
MAPs find applications across various industries, including pharmaceuticals, personal
care, cosmetics, and organic food production [23]. Growing concerns about synthetic ad-