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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5217_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
Gamze Tüzün, Burak Tüzün✶, Dilara Ülger Özbek,
and Elyor Berdimurodov
Chapter 1
The importance of medicinal and aromatic
plants for living things
Abstract: Medicinal and aromatic plants have had an important place in both tradi-
tional and modern medicine throughout history, and have become an indispensable
resource in various fields such as health, cosmetics, and food industries. This book
focuses on the basic properties, biological activities, and versatile usage areas of
medicinal and aromatic plants. The book explains the historical and scientific basis
of medicinal and aromatic plants, and details the chemical structures and pharma
cological effects of alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and other active compounds. It
also covers developments in the field of phytochemistry and the discovery of active
compounds obtained from these plants, and their analysis methods. The role of aro
matic plants in daily life is discussed through essential oils and aromatherapy applications, and their effects in nutrition, beauty, and health. In addition, methods and
legal regulations developed to protect and ensure sustainable use of natural resour
ces are discussed with their local and international dimensions. The challenges
faced by medicinal and aromatic plants, such as climate change, genetic innova
tions, and biotechnological approaches, and future opportunities constitute one of
the sections of the book that offers a forward-looking vision. In addition, the impor
tance of medicinal and aromatic plants in the local and global context is emphasized, focusing on successful conservation projects in different regions, and the integration of traditional knowledge and modern science.
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Keywords: medicinal and aromatic plants, sustainable use, phytochemistry, biodiversity conservation, traditional knowledge integration
✶
Corresponding author: Burak Tüzün, Plant and Animal Production Department, Technical Sciences
Vocational School of Sivas, Sivas Cumhuriyet University, 58140 Sivas, Turkey,
e-mail:
theburaktuzun@yahoo.com, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0420-2043
Gamze Tüzün, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Cumhuriyet University, 58140 Sivas, Turkey
Dilara Ülger Özbek, Advanced Technology Research and Application Centre, Sivas Cumhuriyet
University, 58140 Sivas, Turkey
Elyor Berdimurodov, Chemical and Materials Engineering, New Uzbekistan University, 54 Mustaqillik
Ave, Tashkent 100007, Uzbekistan; Faculty of Chemistry, National University of Uzbekistan, Tashkent
100034, Uzbekistan
4 Gamze Tüzün et al.
1.1 Introduction to medicinal and aromatic plants
1.1.1 Historical background
Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) are one of the oldest natural resources used in
health and treatment processes in human history. The first traces of their use dates back
to prehistoric times. Archaeological evidence shows that Neanderthals used plants with
medicinal properties in their diets and treatment practices. For example, fossil remains
found in El Sidrón Cave in Spain revealed that Neanderthals used chamomile and yarrow for herbal treatment [1].
In Mesopotamia, herbal treatment methods are recorded on clay tablets dating
back to 3,000 BC. These tablets include recipes from plants such as garlic, fennel, and
thyme. Ancient Egypt was also one of the pioneer civilizations in the use of medicinal
plants. The Ebers Papyrus, dating back to 1550 BC, contains approximately 850 herbal
prescriptions. Aloe Vera, myrrh, and garlic are among the plants frequently used by
Egyptians in treating infections and healing wounds [2].
Ayurvedic medicine, developed in India, has provided comprehensive information
on the systematic use of medicinal plants. Texts such as the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita have detailed the health effects of plants such as neem, turmeric, and ashwagandha [3]. During the same period, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in China used
plants such as ginseng, ephedra, and licorice to balance yin-yang and treat diseases.
Ancient Greek and Roman civilizations brought herbal medical practices to the
Western world. Hippocrates (460–370 BC) emphasized the role of plants in disease treatment and laid the foundations of modern medicine. Dioscorides’ De Materia Medica described approximately 600 plants and it was used as a medical reference source in Europe for centuries [4]. During the Islamic Golden Age, Ibn Sina’s book Al-Qanun fi’t-Tıb
systematically organized information on medicinal plants and influenced both Eastern
and Western civilizations [5].
In other parts of the world, indigenous communities have also discovered the
healing properties of plants in their environment. From the Amazon rainforest to the
African savannas, indigenous peoples have used MAPs to treat illness for thousands
of years. This traditional knowledge from the past forms the basis of many studies
that form the basis of modern pharmaceutical chemistry research today [6–9]. Today,
researchers have studied the medicinal potential of chemicals found in plant extracts
of many plants for the treatment of important diseases [10–15].
1.1.1.1 Historical background
MAPs are one of the oldest natural resources used in health and treatment processes
in human history. The first traces of use date back to prehistoric times. Archaeological
evidence shows that Neanderthals used plants with medicinal properties in their diets
Chapter 1 The importance of medicinal and aromatic plants for living things 5
and treatment practices. For example, fossil remains found in El Sidrón Cave in Spain
revealed that Neanderthals used chamomile and yarrow for herbal treatment [16].
In Mesopotamia, herbal treatment methods are recorded on clay tablets dating back
to 3,000 BC. These tablets include recipes from plants such as garlic, fennel, and thyme.
Ancient Egypt was also one of the pioneer civilizations in the use of medicinal plants.
The Ebers Papyrus, dating back to 1,550 BC, contains approximately 850 herbal prescriptions. Aloe vera, myrrh and garlic are among the plants frequently used by Egyptians in
treating infections and healing wounds [17].
Ayurvedic medicine, developed in India, has provided comprehensive information on the systematic use of medicinal plants. Texts such as the Charaka Samhita and
Sushruta Samhita have detailed the health effects of plants such as neem, turmeric,
and ashwagandha [18]. During the same period, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM)
in China used plants such as ginseng, ephedra, and licorice to balance yin-yang and
treat diseases.
Ancient Greek and Roman civilizations brought herbal medical practices to the
Western world. Hippocrates (460–370 BC) emphasized the role of plants in disease treatment and laid the foundations of modern medicine. Dioscorides’ De Materia Medica described approximately 600 plants and was used as a medical reference source in Europe for centuries [19]. During the Islamic Golden Age, Ibn Sina’s book Al-Qanun fi’t-Tıb
systematically organized information on medicinal plants and influenced both Eastern
and Western civilizations [20].
In other parts of the world, indigenous communities have also discovered the
healing properties of plants in their environment. From the Amazon rainforest to the
African savannah, indigenous peoples have used MAPs to treat illnesses for thousands
of years. This traditional knowledge has formed the basis of modern pharmaceutical
research today.
1.1.2 Traditional and modern uses
1.1.2.1 Traditional uses
MAPs have been one of the most important components of traditional medicine. Herbal
treatments have often been applied in the form of infusions, decoctions, pastes, and oils.
For example, in India, holy basil (tulsi) has been used to treat respiratory diseases. In
China, ginseng has been consumed as an energy booster and immune booster [21, 22].
In Africa, rooibos tea has been used both as a dietary supplement and as a medicine
for its antioxidant properties. Native American communities have used aloe vera and
wormwood to heal wounds. Aromatic plants have also been widely used in religious rituals. Lavender has been used as incense due to its relaxing effects, and plants such as
mint and eucalyptus have been used to clear the respiratory tract [23].
6 Gamze Tüzün et al.
1.1.2.2 Modern uses
Modern science, recognizing the value of traditional knowledge, has widely used active ingredients obtained from MAPs in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food industries. Aspirin, derived from salicylic acid obtained from willow bark, is an example of
the adaptation of this herbal knowledge to modern medicine [24].
The active ingredient of turmeric, curcumin, is being investigated in the treatment of conditions such as cancer, arthritis, and Alzheimer’s disease due to its antiinflammatory and antioxidant properties. Lavender oil is used as an effective natural
solution in the treatment of anxiety and insomnia [25, 26].
Aromatic plants are widely used in the food industry as natural sweeteners and
preservatives. Essential oils obtained from plants such as thyme and rosemary are
used to prevent microbial spoilage in foods. The cosmetic industry prefers essential
oils obtained from plants such as lavender, chamomile, and sandalwood in skin care
products [27]. An example of a table summarizing the modern applications of MAPs is
presented in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: The modern applications of medicinal and aromatic plants.
Plant name Active compounds Modern application
Lavender Linalool and linalyl acetate Aromatherapy, stress relief, and wound healing
Turmeric Curcumin Anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antioxidant
Peppermint Menthol and menthone Irritable bowel syndrome treatment, analgesic,
and antispasmodic
Rosemary Rosmarinic acid and
carnosic acid
Ginger Gingerol and shogaol Antiemetic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant
Aloe vera Polysaccharides and
anthraquinones
Cognitive function improvement and food
preservative
Skin care, wound healing, and digestive health
1.1.2.3 Sustainability and future perspectives
Sustainable use of MAPs is important for both ecosystem protection and human health.
Climate change, habitat loss, and overharvesting threaten the natural populations of
these plants. Modern biotechnology holds promise for producing the active ingredients
of these plants in laboratory conditions and contributing to the protection of natural
resources [28, 29].
BIOACTIVE
COMPOUNDS
Others
Tannins
Saponins
Glucosinolates
Flavonoids
Quercetin
Anthocyanins
Epicatechin
Alkoloids
Morphine
Quinine
Nicotine
Terpenoids
Limonene
Mentho
Beta Carotenel
Figure 1.1: Bioactive compounds in medicinal and aromatic plants.
Chapter 1 The importance of medicinal and aromatic plants for living things 7
1.2 Alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and other active compounds
Bioactive compounds found in MAPs are molecules that support the defense mechanisms of plants and provide various pharmacological benefits for humans. Among
these compounds, alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and other active phytochemicals
stand out in Figure 1.1.
1.2.1 Alkaloids
Alkaloids are nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compounds and are widely found in
plants. Known for their medicinal effects, alkaloids have been used throughout history as analgesics, and antimalarial and anticancer agents:
1. Morphine: Obtained from the poppy plant (Papaver somniferum), it is used as a pow-
erful analgesic to control post-surgical pain.
2. Quinine: This alkaloid, isolated from the Cinchona tree (Cinchona spp.), is one of
the first effective drugs used in the treatment of malaria.
3. Nicotine: Found in the tobacco plant (Nicotiana tabacum), nicotine has stimulat-
ing effects on the central nervous system, and has been carefully studied due to
its addictive properties [30, 31].
8 Gamze Tüzün et al.
1.2.2 Flavonoids
Flavonoids are phenolic compounds that support the color, taste, and defense mechanisms of plants. They are known for their antioxidant properties and offer positive effects
on health:
1. Quercetin: Found in onions, apples, and grapes, this compound has strong antioxidant properties and can help prevent cardiovascular diseases.
2. Anthocyanins: Found in red-purple fruits such as blueberries, blackberries, and
strawberries, these compounds have an anticancer effect by scavenging free radicals.
3. Epicatechin: Found abundantly in green tea, it stands out especially for its effect
in protecting cardiovascular health and reducing cell damage [32, 33].
1.2.3 Terpenoids
Terpenoids are isoprene derivatives based on carbohydrate structures and are the
main components of essential oils. Their pharmacological effects include antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties.
1. Limonene: Limonene, found in the peel of citrus fruits, has antimicrobial and anticancer effects.
2. Menthol: Menthol, obtained from the mint plant, is used for skin irritation and
respiratory tract disorders due to its cooling and analgesic effects.
3. Beta-carotene: This terpenoid, found in carrots, sweet potatoes, and tomatoes, is a
precursor of vitamin A and supports vision health [34, 35].
1.2.4 Other active compounds
1. Tannins: These compounds, found in tea, coffee, and oak bark, have astringent
properties and help in wound healing.
2. Saponins: They have soap-like properties and have the potential to strengthen the
immune system and prevent cancer.
3. Glucosinolates: These compounds, found in cabbage, broccoli, and cauliflower, reduce the risk of cancer by activating detoxification enzymes [36].
Chapter 1 The importance of medicinal and aromatic plants for living things 9
1.3 Chemical structures and pharmacological effects
1.3.1 Chemical structures and effects of alkaloids
The chemical structures of alkaloids generally contain nitrogen-containing heterocyclic rings. This structure allows them to be effective on the central nervous system:
1. Morphine: It has a purine-based structure and shows analgesic effects by activating opioid receptors.
2. Quinine: It has a quinoline ring structure and prevents the proliferation of the
Plasmodium parasite.
3. Nicotine: Nicotine, which has pyridine and pyrrole rings, shows addictive effects
by stimulating nicotinic acetylcholine receptors [37, 38].
1.3.2 Chemical structures and effects of flavonoids
Flavonoids consist of a three-ring (C6-C3-C6) structure and carry phenolic hydroxyl
groups. This structure determines their antioxidant properties:
1. Quercetin: It is a powerful antioxidant with a 3-OH group and reduces inflammation [39].
2. Anthocyanins: They contain glycosidic bonds and reduce oxidative stress by scavenging free radicals.
3. Epicatechin: It belongs to the flavan-3-ol class and increases the elasticity of blood
vessels [40].
1.3.3 Chemical structures and effects of terpenoids
Terpenoids are derived from isoprene units and their different chain lengths determine their pharmacological properties:
1. Limonene: It belongs to the monoterpene class and has an antimicrobial effect by
disrupting microbial cell membranes.
2. Menthol: It has a cyclic monoterpene structure and shows its cooling effect by activating TRPM8 receptors.
3. Beta-carotene: It has a tetraterpene structure and contributes to the synthesis of
retinol (vitamin A) [41–43].
10 Gamze Tüzün et al.
1.3.4 Structures and effects of other compounds
1. Tannins: It has a polyphenolic structure and prevents the growth of microorganisms by binding to proteins [44].
2. Saponins: It has a glycosidic structure and strengthens the immune system by stabilizing the cell membrane [45].
3. Glucosinolates: It activates detoxification enzymes with its sulfur-containing
structure and prevents the growth of cancer cells [46].
1.4 Phytochemistry: active compounds in medicinal
and aromatic plants
1.4.1 Alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and other active
compounds
MAPs are known for their positive effects on health, thanks to the various phytochemicals they contain. The biological activities of these compounds depend on the
role they play in the plant’s metabolism and their chemical structures. The most
frequently researched and used phytochemicals are alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and other bioactive compounds [47]:
1. Alkaloids: Alkaloids are nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compounds and generally play an important role in the defense system of plants.
2. Morphine: Obtained from the poppy plant (Papaver somniferum), this alkaloid is
used as a strong painkiller. It binds to opioid receptors and affects the central nervous system.
3. Quinine: This compound, isolated from the Cinchona tree (Cinchona spp.), is used
in the treatment of malaria. It has a parasitic effect with its quinoline ring
4. Nicotine: Nicotine, found in the tobacco plant (Nicotiana tabacum), has stimulating effects on the central nervous system, but it is addictive.
5. Capsaicin: This alkaloid, found in hot peppers, is widely used in pharmacology
for its pain-relieving effect.
1.4.2 Flavonoids
Flavonoids are polyphenol compounds with strong antioxidant properties due to their
phenolic structure. Flavonoids are naturally occurring polyphenolic compounds that
are widely distributed in plants. Chemically, they are benzopyrone derivatives with a
C6-C3-C6 carbon skeleton. Flavonoids play an important role in determining the prop-
Chapter 1 The importance of medicinal and aromatic plants for living things 11
erties of plants such as color, odor, and taste, and are also part of protective mechanisms against environmental stresses [48, 49]:
1. Quercetin: This flavonoid, found in apples, onions, and grapes, protects against
cardiovascular diseases by neutralizing free radicals.
2. Anthocyanins: Found in foods such as blueberries, blackberries, and red cabbage,
it offers cell damage-preventing effects.
3. Epicatechin: This flavonoid, found in abundance in green tea, increases the flexibility of blood vessels and supports heart health.
1.4.3 Terpenoids
Terpenoids are the main components of volatile oils derived from isoprene units. These
compounds are known for their antimicrobial, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory effects [50, 51]:
1. Limonene: This monoterpene found in the peel of citrus fruits has antimicrobial
effects and is widely used in cosmetic products.
2. Menthol: Menthol obtained from the mint plant provides cooling and analgesic
effects.
3. Beta-carotene: This tetraterpene, a precursor to vitamin A, is found in carrots,
sweet potatoes, and spinach.
1.4.4 Other active compounds
1. Tannins: Tannins found in tea and coffee have antioxidant properties and support cell renewal.
2. Saponins: These compounds strengthen the immune system and have been associated with anticancer effects.
3. Glucosinolates: These compounds, found in vegetables such as cauliflower, broccoli,
and cabbage, protect against cancer by activating detoxification enzymes [46].
1.5 Chemical structures and pharmacological effects
1.5.1 Chemical structures and effects of alkaloids
The chemical structure of alkaloids generally contains heterocyclic rings with nitrogen
atoms. This structure plays a decisive role in their pharmacological effects [52, 53]:
O
O
O
H
H
H
H
H
N
Figure 1.2: Molecular structure of morphine.
O
O
H
N
H
H
N
Figure 1.3: Molecular structure of quinine.
12 Gamze Tüzün et al.
1. Morphine: It contains methoxy groups attached to the phenanthrene ring and
shows its pain-relieving effect by interacting with opioid receptors. The molecular
structure of morphine is given in Figure 1.2.
2. Quinine: Quinine, which carries a quinoline ring, is an alkaloid effective in the
treatment of parasitic infections. The molecular structure of quinine is given in
Figure 1.3.
acetylcholine receptors. The molecular structure of nicotine is given in Figure 1.4.
3. Nicotine: It has pyridine and pyrrole rings; this structure allows it to bind to nicotinic