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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5217_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
Chapter 1 The importance of medicinal and aromatic plants for living things 23
culture agricultural practices reduce biodiversity and cause the destruction of
natural vegetation [79].
5. Loss of traditional knowledge: Traditional knowledge accumulated by local communities over generations is rapidly disappearing with modernization and urbanization. Traditional knowledge is vital to ensuring the correct use and preservation of MAPs.
1.8.2 Conservation strategies
Various strategies are implemented both locally and globally to protect endangered
plant species [67, 69, 80]. These strategies aim to protect natural populations of plants,
ensure their sustainable use, and increase biodiversity.
1.8.2.1 Protection of natural habitats (in situ conservation)
In situ conservation refers to the protection of plants in their natural habitats. This
method ensures the continuity of natural processes by preserving the relationships of
plants with other organisms in the ecosystem [69, 80]:
1. Protected areas: National parks, biosphere reserves, and special protection zones
provide safe living spaces for endangered plants. In these areas, human intervention is limited and the sustainability of natural populations is ensured.
Habitat restoration: Reforestation of degraded areas and restoration of natu-
ral vegetation create new living spaces for endangered plants.
2. Conservation outside the natural habitat (ex situ conservation): Ex situ conservation ensures the protection of endangered plants outside their natural habitats.
This approach preserves the genetic material of plants and enables their reintroduction to nature in the future.
3. Seed banks: Seeds can be preserved for long periods of time by storing them in
low temperature and humidity conditions. This method is one of the most effective ways to preserve the genetic diversity of plants.
4. Botanical gardens: In botanical gardens, endangered plants are grown and protected for scientific purposes. These gardens are also an important tool for raising
public awareness.
5. Gene banks: The genetic material of plants is stored for scientific research and
breeding studies.
24 Gamze Tüzün et al.
1.8.3 Participation of local communities
Local communities play a critical role in the conservation of MAPs. Traditional knowledge helps us understand the importance of plants in natural ecosystems. Involving
local people in conservation projects encourages both their economic benefits and
their support for these projects.
1.8.3.1 Education and awareness
Raising awareness throughout society is vital for the conservation of MAPs. Education
programs should aim to explain the importance of these plants, the threats they face,
and how individuals can contribute to this process. In particular, raising environmental awareness among younger generations will support long-term conservation efforts.
1.8.3.2 International collaborations
The conservation of MAPs should be supported not only by local efforts but also by
international collaborations. International agreements such as the United Nations
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) promote the conservation of biodiversity
and the sustainable use of natural resources. In addition, CITES (Convention on Trade
in Endangered Species) regulates international trade in endangered plants.
1.8.3.3 Sustainable harvesting and trade
Sustainable harvesting of MAPs plays an important role in the conservation of these
species. During harvest, the natural regenerative capacity of plants should be respected and commercial activities should be organized in a way that they do not disrupt the ecosystem. Sustainable trade certificates and organic farming practices are
among the important tools in this area.
1.8.4 Sustainable harvesting methods
The protection of natural resources and the preservation of a healthy environment
for future generations have made the concept of sustainability more important than
ever. The increasing demand, especially for the use of MAPs, necessitates the proper
management of these resources. Sustainable harvesting methods are of vital importance in preventing the depletion of natural populations, maintaining the balance of
Chapter 1 The importance of medicinal and aromatic plants for living things 25
ecosystems, and sustaining biodiversity. These methods aim to ensure that plant resources not only meet today’s needs but also ensure that future generations can benefit from these resources.
1.8.4.1 The importance of sustainable harvesting
Sustainable harvesting methods aim to carry out the collection process without harming
the natural regeneration capacity of plants. MAPs are widely used in many sectors such
as the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food industries. However, uncontrolled and excessive collection of these plants causes habitat destruction and many species face the risk
of extinction. Sustainable harvesting reduces these risks and ensures the long-term usability of plant resources.
1.8.4.2 Sustainable harvesting principles
1. Respect for the regeneration capacity of natural populations: Harvesting should
be done by taking into account the growth cycles and renewal rates of plants. For
example, if a plant whose seeds or roots are collected is completely uprooted before it has had the opportunity to leave enough seeds, it becomes impossible to
renew the population.
2. Control of harvest frequency: Plants in the same area should not be harvested at
frequent intervals. After the plant is collected, a certain period of time should be
provided for the population to renew itself.
3. Collect only as much as needed: Unnecessary and excessive harvesting can lead
to the depletion of plant resources. The amount harvested should be enough to
meet the demand, and no more should be collected.
4. Protection of habitat: Care should be taken not to damage the habitat during the
plant collection process. In particular, situations such as the use of vehicles, compaction of the soil, or damage to other plants should be prevented.
5. Benefiting from the knowledge and experience of local communities: Local communities have deep knowledge of the natural life cycles and methods of use of
plants. This knowledge can guide the development of sustainable harvesting
methods.
1.8.4.3 Sustainable harvesting techniques
1. Selective harvesting: Selective harvesting involves collecting only certain plants or
plant parts. For example, collecting only the leaves or flowers of a plant instead of
uprooting it completely increases the plant’s chances of survival.
26 Gamze Tüzün et al.
2. Rotational harvesting: After harvesting in one area, a sufficient period of time
should be given before harvesting in the same area again. This allows the plants
to renew their populations and maintains the balance of the habitat.
3. Harvest timing: The optimal harvest time should be determined by considering the
life cycle of the plants. For example, if a plant whose seeds are used, is harvested
before its seeds mature, its regenerative capacity may be seriously damaged.
4. Use of traditional methods: Traditional harvesting methods developed by local
communities generally take into account environmental sustainability. Combining these methods with modern practices can provide more effective results.
5. Minimum intervention techniques: Methods that minimize environmental damage
during the harvest of plant resources should be preferred. For example, collecting
only the surface leaves instead of uprooting can help preserve soil structure.
1.8.4.4 Monitoring and evaluating the harvesting process
Continuous monitoring and evaluation are necessary for sustainable harvesting methods to be successful [81, 82]. The amount of plants harvested, population density, and
the habitat status should be checked regularly. This process may include the following
steps:
1. Keeping harvest records: Recording the type and amount of plants harvested and
the area harvested is important for understanding population dynamics.
2. Habitat assessment: The effects of harvesting on habitat should be regularly examined.
3. Scientific research: Collecting scientific data on the regeneration rates of plants
and their sensitivity to environmental factors contributes to the development of
sustainable practices.
1.8.4.5 The economic dimension of sustainable harvesting
Sustainable harvesting methods not only provide environmental benefits, but also
offer economic advantages. These methods, which prevent the depletion of natural
resources, enable the continued commercial use of MAPs in the long-term. In addition,
sustainable harvesting practices can be supported by labels such as organic certification and sustainable trade, which can increase the value of products.
1.8.4.6 International approaches and legal regulations
The protection and sustainable use of MAPs are of critical importance in ensuring the
continuity of ecosystems, social well-being, and biodiversity on a global scale [69].
Chapter 1 The importance of medicinal and aromatic plants for living things 27
These plants are the basis not only for the health and cosmetic industries, but also for
traditional medicine and the livelihoods of local peoples. However, many plant species are under threat due to factors such as overuse of natural resources, habitat loss,
and climate change [83]. This situation requires the development of effective protection and sustainable use strategies through international cooperation and legal regulations.
1.8.4.6.1 International approaches
Various international organizations and initiatives play an active role in the protection
of MAPs. The United Nations (UN) and its affiliated organizations are at the forefront of
these. In particular, the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) provides a global framework for the protection of biodiversity, its sustainable use, and the
equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resources. The CBD protects the rights of local
communities, especially those with traditional knowledge, and encourages these communities to manage natural resources sustainably.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is another important
actor supporting efforts to protect MAPs. The IUCN Red List identifies threatened species and sets priorities for their protection. Conservation projects are developed, especially for critically endangered species, and recommendations are made to protect
their natural habitats.
In addition, FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) emphasizes the importance
of MAPs within the framework of agricultural biodiversity and sustainable agricultural
practices. FAO provides guidance for the sustainable management of natural stocks of
these plants and the enhancement of the economic benefits of biological resources.
Another important initiative is CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). This convention aims to protect the natural populations of these species by regulating international trade in endangered MAP
species. CITES prevents uncontrolled collection of plants, especially those with high
commercial value, and develops sustainable trade policies.
1.8.4.6.2 Legal regulations
Various legal regulations are implemented at national and international levels for the
protection and sustainable use of MAPs. These regulations generally focus on areas
such as the protection of biodiversity, management of genetic resources, and protection of the rights of local communities.
The European Union (EU) has developed comprehensive regulations for the protection of MAPs within the scope of its biodiversity policies. The EU Habitat Directive
aims to protect natural habitats and wild flora and fauna. This directive ensures the
protection of the natural habitats of many MAP species and the sustainable use of
these species. In addition, the EU’s Organic Farming Regulations encourage the production of these plants using organic and sustainable methods.
28 Gamze Tüzün et al.
The Nagoya Protocol provides an international framework for access to genetic
resources and the fair sharing of the benefits obtained from these resources. The protocol aims to protect the rights of local communities in the use of MAPs and to ensure
the sustainable management of biodiversity.
Many countries have national laws regulating trade in MAPs. For example, countries rich in biodiversity, such as India, China, and Brazil, have developed specific laws
that regulate the trade and use of these plants. These laws generally control the collection, processing, and export of plants, while also protecting the rights of local communities.
1.8.4.6.3 Protection of local communities and traditional knowledge
Local communities play a critical role in the conservation and sustainable use of
MAPs. Traditional knowledge stems from the centuries-old experiences of these communities and their way of life in harmony with nature. However, with the rise of
modern biotechnology and pharmacological research, this knowledge is being used
for commercial purposes, and the rights of local communities are being neglected.
The Nagoya Protocol and the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples aim to protect the knowledge and resources of local communities. These
regulations require that the benefits derived from biological resources be shared
fairly with local communities. In addition, many countries have developed national
policies that recognize the rights of local communities over these plants.
1.8.5 Many countries are protecting biodiversity
Biodiversity plays a vital role in maintaining ecological balance and providing resources
necessary for human life. MAPs have been used in traditional medicine, cosmetics, and
food industry for centuries. However, factors such as overexploitation, habitat destruction, and climate change have caused a serious decrease in the populations of these
plants. Aware of these problems, many countries are taking steps toward the protection
and sustainable use of MAPs by developing various policies, strategies, and programs to
protect biodiversity.
1.8.5.1 Global conservation efforts
Many countries around the world have adopted comprehensive strategies to protect
their unique biodiversity, especially MAPs. The basis of these efforts is the United
Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Signed by 196 countries, this convention promotes the protection of biodiversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resources. Many countries
Chapter 1 The importance of medicinal and aromatic plants for living things 29
aim to secure their natural resources by integrating the goals of CBD into their national policies.
For example, India, known for its rich biodiversity and traditional knowledge systems, aims to protect biological resources and promote their sustainable use through the
Biological Diversity Act of 2002. This act has established Biodiversity Management Committees at the local level to document biological resources and related traditional knowledge, and regulates their use for research and commercial purposes. India also supports
the protection of MAPs through the National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB), promotes
agriculture, and carries out conservation projects in natural areas.
In South America, Brazil has taken important steps, especially in protecting the
Amazon rainforest. Brazil has implemented strict regulations to prevent overexploitation of natural resources and has established structures such as the Genetic Heritage
Management Council to ensure the sustainable use of genetic resources and traditional knowledge.
China has also prioritized the protection of MAPs through the Chinese Medicine
Resources Protection and Development Plan, which focuses on the sustainable harvesting and cultivation of medicinal plants used in TCM. Many nature reserves and
botanical gardens have been established across the country, protecting endangered
species.
1.8.5.2 Protected areas and conservation in natural habitats
One of the most effective methods for protecting biodiversity is the establishment of
protected areas such as national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and biosphere reserves.
These areas are safe habitats that prevent overharvesting, by allowing MAPs to reproduce naturally.
Countries such as Kenya, South Africa, and Tanzania have designated large land
areas as protected areas, ensuring the protection of both flora and fauna. In Europe,
the Natura 2000 Network, established under the EU Habitats Directive, protects endangered species and habitats throughout the European Union. This network covers
areas with many MAP species.
In addition to protected areas, in situ conservation initiatives focus on protecting
MAPs in their natural habitats. Countries such as Australia and Canada are implementing projects to restore degraded ecosystems and reintroduce native plant species
to the wild. These efforts not only increase biodiversity but also support the ecological
functions of MAPs.
30 Gamze Tüzün et al.
1.8.5.3 Ex situ conservation and gene banks
Many countries have invested in ex situ conservation methods to protect endangered
MAPs. Botanical gardens, seed banks, and tissue culture laboratories play an important role in preserving genetic diversity.
The Millennium Seed Bank Partnership in the United Kingdom has collected and
preserved seeds of rare and threatened MAPs from around the world. Similarly,
Ethiopia’s Biodiversity Conservation Institute manages a gene bank that stores seeds
of medicinal plants vital to traditional medicine. These efforts ensure that genetic resources are available for future research, breeding, and reintroduction activities.
1.9 Challenges and future prospects
1.9.1 Impacts of climate change
Climate change is considered one of the greatest environmental challenges in
human history, and its effects on biodiversity and natural resources are becoming
increasingly evident [69]. MAPs, in particular, constitute a group of plant species
that are highly sensitive to the effects of climate change. The genetic diversity, adaptation capacities, and changes in the ecological conditions specific to their habitats
of these plants bring about serious problems that threaten their sustainable use and
conservation.
Climate change includes many factors such as temperature increase, changes in precipitation patterns, drought, severe weather events, and deterioration in soil quality [84].
These changes directly affect the growing conditions of MAP species. For example,
drought and water stress limit the growth, photosynthetic capacity and secondary metabolite production of plants. Secondary metabolites are the components that are generally
responsible for their medicinal and aromatic properties. Therefore, climate change can
negatively affect the quantity and quality of these components, which can lead to both
economic losses and difficulties in product supply in the health sector.
Habitat loss and ecosystem degradation put many MAP species at risk of extinction [85]. For example, endemic plants growing in high altitude regions may be forced
to migrate to higher altitudes due to climate change. However, this may exceed the
adaptation capacity of these species and cause the species to become extinct. In addition, the disruption of biotic relationships such as plant–pollinator interactions in ecosystems may negatively affect the reproductive success and population dynamics of
plants.
Agricultural practices are also affected by climate change, which can make it difficult
to grow MAPs. Limited water and nutrient resources in traditional agricultural systems
Chapter 1 The importance of medicinal and aromatic plants for living things 31
limit farmers’ efforts to increase their production in a sustainable way. This can cause
both economic losses for local communities and disruptions in global supply chains.
1.9.2 Genetic and biotechnological approaches
Genetic and biotechnological approaches offer great potential to mitigate the negative
effects of climate change on MAP [86]. These technologies provide innovative solutions to improve plant genetics, resistance, and biochemical properties [87]. Genetic
engineering and biotechnological techniques play an important role in the protection
and sustainable use of MAP species.
1.9.2.1 Protection of genetic diversity and breeding studies
Genetic diversity is a fundamental element that enables plants to adapt to changing
environmental conditions. Molecular marker technologies can be used to analyze the
genetic diversity and population structure of MAP species. This information helps develop strategies for the protection of threatened species. In addition, combining traditional breeding studies with biotechnological methods enables the development of
new plant varieties resistant to stress factors such as drought, salinity, and disease.
1.9.2.2 Genomic and transcriptomic approaches
Next-generation sequencing technologies allow detailed examination of the genomic
and transcriptomic profiles of MAP species. These analyses help us understand the
genetic pathways that control plant stress responses and secondary metabolite production. Thus, desired traits can be increased by manipulating target genes. For example, to increase the production of secondary metabolites, biosynthetic pathways can
be regulated or gene transfer methods can be used.
1.9.2.3 Culture tissue techniques
Culture tissue techniques allow rapid and efficient propagation of endangered TAB
species. These techniques allow plants to be produced in a laboratory environment
without ecological pressures, while preserving their genetic characteristics. At the
same time, these methods can support the commercial production of rare plant species and reduce the pressure on natural populations.
32 Gamze Tüzün et al.
1.9.2.4 CRISPR/Cas9 technology
Gene editing technologies can be used to modify the genetic makeup of TAB species in
a targeted manner. Tools such as CRISPR/Cas9 can be used to increase the resistance
of plants to stress factors or to optimize secondary metabolite production pathways.
This technology provides faster and more precise results compared to traditional genetic methods.
1.9.2.5 Metabolic engineering and synthetic biology
Metabolic engineering techniques can be used to optimize the secondary metabolite
production pathways of TAB species. Synthetic biology approaches can increase the production of commercially valuable compounds by reprogramming the natural biosynthetic pathways of plants. For example, the production of active ingredients used in the
pharmaceutical industry by microorganisms can contribute to the conservation of natural resources.
1.9.2.6 Bioinformatics and data analysis
Bioinformatics tools play a critical role in the analysis of genomic, transcriptomic,
and metabolomic data. These data help us understand the adaptation mechanisms
and metabolic profiles of TAB species. Additionally, bioinformatics approaches provide a powerful platform for targeting genetic modifications and predicting potential
side effects.
1.10 Case studies and regional practices
1.10.1 Successful projects in specific regions
Successful projects have been implemented in various regions around the world for
the conservation and sustainable use of MAP. These projects support the economic
development of local communities, while ensuring the sustainability of natural resources. The success of such projects is possible through the integrated application of
local knowledge, ecosystem-oriented approaches and scientific research.