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Esra Uçar, Gamze Tüzün, Burak Tüzün✶, and Elyor Berdimurodov
Chapter 8
Metabolic and hormonal responses
of medicinal and aromatic plants
to abiotic stress
Abstract: Throughout their life cycle, plants are exposed to various biotic and abiotic
stresses, such as drought, salinity, low temperatures, and pathogen attacks. In order to
survive and adapt, they produce a variety of hormonal and metabolic responses. These
responses are shaped by the interaction of genetic and environmental factors, and regu
late their fundamental life processes such as growth, development, and reproduction.
Plant hormones are chemical signaling molecules that regulate processes such as plant
growth, development, environmental adaptation, and stress management. The major
plant hormones include auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, abscisic acid (ABA), ethylene,
salicylic acid, and jasmonates. Auxins regulate cell elongation and tropic movements,
while gibberellins promote seed germination and flowering. Cytokinins stimulate cell di
vision and delay senescence. ABA plays a crucial role in stomatal closure and water balance under certain stress conditions. Ethylene is involved in processes such as ripening
and leaf abscission, whereas jasmonates and salicylic acid activate defense mechanisms.
The interactions among these hormones are critical for enabling plants to adapt to envi
ronmental conditions and develop optimal growth strategies. Molecular docking calculations have been evaluated to understand plant responses to environmental stress factors
such as drought, salinity, and pathogens, as well as to analyze biomolecular interactions.
The binding affinities of natural or synthetic compounds with defense proteins (e.g.,
1HJO) have been examined, elucidating stress mechanisms, identifying biologically active
compounds, and developing innovative strategies to enhance plant stress tolerance.
-
-
-
Keywords: abiotic stress, biotic stress, hormone, medicinal and aromatic plants
✶
Corresponding author: Burak Tüzün, Plant and Animal Production Department, Technical Sciences
Vocational School of Sivas, Sivas Cumhuriyet University, 58140 Sivas, Turkey,
e-mail:
theburaktuzun@yahoo.com, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0420-2043
Esra Uçar, Plant and Animal Production Department, Technical Sciences Vocational School of Sivas,
Sivas Cumhuriyet University, 58140 Sivas, Turkey
Gamze Tüzün, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Cumhuriyet University, 58140 Sivas, Turkey
Elyor Berdimurodov, Chemical and Materials Engineering, New Uzbekistan University, 54 Mustaqillik
Ave, Tashkent 100007, Uzbekistan; Faculty of Chemistry, National University of Uzbekistan, Tashkent
100034, Uzbekistan
300 Esra Uçar et al.
8.1 Introduction
Plants may experience a variety of unfavorable environmental circumstances during
their life cycle. These factors may have a detrimental impact on their growth and development and can also restrict their output. Stress factors are environmental elements that have a detrimental effect on the proper growth and development of plants.
The literature often refers to these elements that cause such adversities as “biotic and
abiotic stresses” [1]. Plants may suffer physiological and biochemical damage as a result of biotic and abiotic stress causes. Plants have molecular defense mechanisms
and initially adjust to lessen the effects of these damages. There are three categories
that this reaction mechanism might be placed into. The first one is about the homeostasis of macromolecules and ions. It makes sure that there is a balance of big molecules like proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids, as well as ions like sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride. The second comprises the creation of
protective molecules, which neutralize reactive oxygen species (ROS) via antioxidants
such as ascorbic acid, tocopherols, and flavonoids. Osmolytes like proline, betaine,
and sorbitol also help by keeping water levels balanced, preserving the structure of
proteins and membranes. Heat shock proteins (HSPs) and pathogenesis-related (PR)
proteins increase the ability of cells to withstand thermal or biotic stimuli. LEA proteins, which contain hydrophilic amino acids, help preserve cellular proteins and
membrane structures from losing water. Phytohormones, including abscisic acid
(ABA), salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid, and ethylene, are able to detect stress signals
and begin the process of activating the genes that are associated to them. Secondary
metabolites, such as phenolics, alkaloids, and terpenoids, have antioxidant, antibacterial, and insect-repellent activities, which help protect plants against pests and diseases [2–7]. The third part is the production and detoxification of ROS [7]. These are
molecules that are chemically active and are produced during different metabolic
processes that take place in plant cells. The primary forms are superoxide anion (O
hydrogen peroxide (H
), hydroxyl radical (OH⋅), and singlet oxygen (1O2) [8, 9].
2O2
Plants often produce them in little quantities under normal circumstances. However,
when plants are under stress, they tend to produce more ROS. During the light processes of photosynthesis in chloroplasts, excess light energy may transform oxygen
molecules into ROS. Enzymes, including oxidases and lipoxygenases, may help produce ROS [10–14].
Plants respond to stress in both metabolic and hormonal ways. They produce hormones such as ABA, ethylene, jasmonate, SA, cytokinin, gibberellin, and auxin. ABA
causes stomata to close, which helps to reduce water loss. It also causes seeds to become
dormant, which stops them from germinating under difficult circumstances. Additionally, ABA increases the production of proteins that help seeds tolerate stress [9, 15–18].
Ethylene is produced when there is both biotic and abiotic stress. It alters the cell wall
during times of stress, which helps to protect against mechanical damage. In the case of
a pathogen assault, it encourages programmed cell death in the regions that are af-
−
2
),
Chapter 8 Metabolic and hormonal responses of medicinal and aromatic plants 301
fected in order to stop the disease from spreading. It encourages the creation of proteins that help the body defend itself against stress. Ethylene stimulates leaf abscission
to save energy and supports deeper root development under water stress conditions,
such as drought and salt. Ethylene also enhances the synthesis of PR (pathogenesisrelated) proteins, which help to boost the immune system of plants [19–25]. Jasmonate
protects against injury and pathogen assaults, whereas SA is useful in plant immunity
[26]. Plant survival and production are significantly affected by environmental stress
factors such as drought, salt, heavy metals, and diseases. These stressors disturb the balance of the cell, which leads to the creation of ROS. These ROS may cause oxidative
damage to cellular components, including membranes, DNA, and proteins. Plants use a
variety of defensive mechanisms, including enzymes, proteins, and phytochemicals, to
reduce the impact of these threats and keep their cells stable. Molecular docking simulations have become a valuable computational technique for studying biomolecular interactions and discovering useful chemicals that improve the ability of plants to withstand stress. Molecular docking helps to find bioactive chemicals and explains their
functions in plant metabolism by measuring the binding affinities of natural or synthesized ligands with important defense proteins, including superoxide dismutase, catalase, and HSPs. For example, the 1HJO protein is renowned for its antioxidant activity
and plays an important role in detoxifying ROS, which helps plants withstand biotic
and abiotic stressors. This method gives important information on plant stress biology
and presents new ideas for sustainable agriculture and biotechnological progress.
8.2 Metabolic and hormonal responses to abiotic stress
Plants respond to stress by increasing or regulating the synthesis of various phytohormones. Stress factors such as drought, extreme cold, salinity, and waterlogging induce
stress in plants, prompting them to engage in a struggle for survival. In response to
stress conditions, plants exhibit: morphological and physiological changes, cytological
changes, biomolecular responses, hormonal responses, and genetic responses [27].
8.3 Water stress
8.3.1 Drought stress
Drought causes plants to be unable to absorb enough water from the soil, which results
in water loss from plant cells and a drop in turgor pressure. This reduces the rate of cell
division and restricts growth. Plants also seal their stomata to stop losing more water, in
Figure 8.1: Drought stress in plants.
302 Esra Uçar et al.
addition to the reduction in turgor pressure. Although this helps to save water, it also
restricts the amount of carbon dioxide that can be absorbed, which leads to a decrease
in the rate of photosynthesis. Chlorophyll degradation occurs as a result of drought circumstances, which in turn decreases the ability to perform photosynthesis. At the same
time, it causes oxidative stress and destroys the organelles of cells. Roots that cannot absorb water are unable to access the soil solution, which results in a lack of nutrients for
the plant. When the amount of water in the soil decreases, the concentration of dissolved
salts rises, which leads to an increase in osmotic stress. When there is a drought, the
levels of ABA rise, which causes the stomata to shut and decreases the amount of water
that is lost [16, 28]. Because the enzymes that are involved in ABA production are mostly
found in leaf tissues, the buildup of ABA takes place in the vascular tissues of the leaves
[29]. Plants do not have a central nervous system, yet they are nonetheless able to communicate stress signals between their roots and shoots via their vascular system. Hydraulic signals, electrical currents, calcium waves, ROS, and hormone-like peptides are
all involved in long-distance communication in response to drought stress [30, 31]. In
order to maintain a stable osmotic equilibrium, plants create osmoprotective substances
such as proline, trehalose, polysaccharides, and betaine. These metabolites build up
throughout the plant due to stress, which reduces the cell water potential and helps the
plant retain water. This mechanism, known as osmotic adjustment, serves to maintain
cell turgor [32–35]. The plant’s roots usually grow longer in order to access groundwater,
which is a structural characteristic of the plant. In addition, it decreases the area of the
leaf, thickens the waxy cuticle layer in the epidermis, and generally decreases the number of stomata in order to limit water loss [16]. Figure 8.1 provides a schematic representation of drought stress.