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Chapter 4 Medicinal and aromatic plants that are toxic 163
4.3.6 Datura stramonium (jimsonweed)
Common names for Datura stramonium include prickly burr, fake castor oil plant, devil’s cucumber, tolguacha, Jamestown weed, stinkweed, locoweed, thorn apple, moon
flower, hell’s bells, devil’s trumpet, devil’s weed, devil’s snare, and jimsonweed. The
Sanskrit language is the source of the genus name Dhattūra. Although the Neo-Latin
species name stramonium has no recorded origin, Carolus Linnaeus used the word stra-
monia for a variety of Datura species in the seventeenth century. The tropane alkaloids
atropine, hyoscyamine, and scopolamine – all of which are categorized as deliriants or
anticholinergics – are present in hazardous concentrations in every section of Datura
plants [21]. In traditional medicine, D. stramonium has long been used to treat a wide
range of conditions such as asthma, muscle spasms, and motion sickness. Scopolamine
is used in modern medicine as a sedative and anti-nausea medication. On the other
hand, it is used recreationally to produce hallucinations and euphoria, a feeling of wellbeing [22]. As a result, it has also been used as an entheogenetic hallucinogen (of the
anticholinergic/antimuscarinic, deliriant variety) to produce vivid images. Because of
its effects on the body and mind, which are often subjectively seen as extremely unpleasant and can result in a profound and protracted state of disorientation that could
be lethal, it is unlikely to ever become a major drug of abuse. It includes tropane alkaloids, which can be quite toxic and are what cause the deliriant effects. It is utilized to
create medications that treat influenza, cough, asthma, nerve diseases, and swine flu.
Because D. stramonium seeds are analgesic, anthelmintic, and anti-inflammatory,
they are used to cure toothaches, fever from inflammation, and stomach and intestinal discomfort brought on by worm infestation. Its fruit juice is administered to the
scalp to cure hair loss and dandruff [23]. In addition to respiratory failure, flushing,
mydriasis, sinus tachycardia, hyperpyrexia, decreased bowel activity, urinary retention, and neurological disorders with ataxia, impaired short-term memory, disorientation, confusion, hallucinations (visual and auditory), psychosis, agitated delirium, seizures, and coma, typical symptoms of D. stramonium poisoning include dry skin and
mouth, hyperthermia, hallucinations, delirium, seizures, flushing, and coma. These
signs are similar to those of atropine intoxication. Dry mouth, excessive thirst, convulsions, nausea, vomiting, elevated heart rate, unconsciousness, and breathing problems are some of the symptoms of the toxin, which can be lethal if consumed in high
quantities.
4.3.7 Ricinus communis (castor bean)
One of the most hazardous naturally occurring compounds, ricin, is present in the
seeds of the castor bean plant (Ricinus communis). Although reports on the amount of
ricin in castor beans vary, it is most likely between 1% and 5%. Ricin is being investigated for therapeutic use in cell-based research, bone marrow transplantation, and can-
164 Nuraniye Eruygur and Sanem Hoşbaş Coşkun
cer treatment. According to experimental data, malignant cells express more carbohydrate-containing surface-lectin binding sites than nonmalignant cells, which may make
them more vulnerable to ricin toxicity. Antibody-conjugated ricin has been studied as
an immunotherapeutic treatment that targets cancer cells [24]. Castor oil, derived from
the plant, is used as a laxative and in the treatment of skin conditions [25, 26]. The
symptoms of ricin poisoning include severe abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, and
organ failure. Ingestion of even one or two castor beans can be fatal [27].
4.3.8 Taxus baccata (English yew)
Taxus baccata is a native evergreen non-resinous gymnosperm tree up to 20–28 m,
often with multiple trunks and spreading, rounded or pyramidal anopy [28]. It contains taxine alkaloids, which are cardiotoxic and neurotoxic. Some species of yew
(e.g., Taxus brevifolia) are used to produce the chemotherapy drug paclitaxel (Taxol),
used in cancer treatment. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the National
Cancer Institute (NCI) worked together on a plant screening program from 1960 to
1981 that gathered and examined 115,000 extracts from 15,000 plant species in order
to find naturally occurring substances having anticancer properties. On the final day
of his 1962 journey, USDA botanist Arthur Barclay collected samples from a solitary
Pacific yew tree, Taxus brevifolia. Following his return, tests were conducted on crude
extracts from fruit, twigs, bark, and needles; the results showed that the bark extract
was cytotoxic. In 1964, samples of T. brevifolia were sent to Mansukh Wani and Monroe Wall, who were employed by the NCI at the Research Triangle Institute (Research
Triangle Park, NC) under contract. By 1967, the active component of T. brevifolia bark
had been separated, identified, and given the name Taxol based on the species from
which it originated and the presence of hydroxyl groups [29]. Symptoms of yew poisoning include vomiting, seizures, respiratory distress, and heart failure. Death can
occur due to heart arrhythmias [30].
4.3.9 Hyoscyamus niger (black henbane)
Commonly referred to as henbane, Hyoscyamus niger L., a member of the Solanaceae
family, is found throughout Asia and Europe. It may be found in India between 8,000
feet and 11,000 feet above sea level, from Kashmir to the Garhwal Himalayas. Tropane
alkaloids such as scopolamine and hyoscyamine are found in H. niger. It contains nortropane alkaloids, such as calystegins, which have strong-to-moderate glycosidase inhibitory effects, and is an excellent source of anticholinergic tropane alkaloids. There
have also been reports of the existence of several non-alkaloidal components in addition to alkaloids, such as lignan amides, lignans, withanolides, and tyramine derivatives [31]. The black henbane was used historically as a sedative, pain reliever, and to
Chapter 4 Medicinal and aromatic plants that are toxic 165
treat motion sickness. Scopolamine is still used to prevent nausea. Symptoms of henbane poisoning include hallucinations, agitation, dry mouth, increased heart rate, and
coma. High doses can be lethal [32].
4.3.10 Cicuta virosa (water hemlock)
In North America and the UK, water hemlock is considered to be one of the most toxic
plants. It is made up of a variety of species that are separated into two genera, Cicuta
and Oenanthe. The plants often referred to as water hemlock are members of the Apiaceae family (the historical name Umbelliferae is an alternate family name allowed by
the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature). This family’s species are separated
into the genera Oenanthe and Cicuta. Four species make up the genus Cicuta: C. bulbifera
L., C. douglasii (DC.), C. maculata L., and C. virosa L. All save C. bulbifera have significant
concentrations of cicutoxin, which is enough to be harmful to hosts. The primary toxin
responsible for the unique neurological signs and symptoms is found in O. crocata, out
of all the Oenanthe species. Cicutoxin and oenanthotoxin, the two main toxins, are members of a class of C17 conjugated polyacetylenes. In the central nervous system (CNS),
they function as (noncompetitive) gamma-aminobutyric acid antagonists, causing unchecked neuronal depolarization that may result in seizures. Even a little amount of
plant stuff can cause extreme intoxication if consumed [33]. It has been used in traditional medicine for pain relief, but its extreme toxicity limits its modern use. Symptoms
of water hemlock ingestion include nausea, seizures, muscle twitching, respiratory failure, and death. Even a small amount can be fatal.
4.3.11 Veratrum viride (false hellebore)
Numerous Veratrum species are linked to toxicity in both humans and animals. They
contain Veratrum alkaloids, such as veratridine, which have an impact on muscle and
nerve sodium channels. Steroid alkaloids are the main poisons; some differ in their
esterified acid moiety, while others have a modified steroid template. These alkaloids
work by making nerve cells’ sodium channels more permeable, which makes them
fire constantly. Increased vagal nerve stimulation triggers the Bezold-Jarisch reaction,
which is characterized by three responses: bradycardia, apnea, and hypotension. Traditionally used for treating high blood pressure and fever, but not commonly used in
modern medicine due to its toxicity. Several veratrum extracts were promoted as antihypertensive medications in the clinical setting but were later taken off the market
due to their limited therapeutic index. Vomiting and gastrointestinal discomfort are
typical symptoms after ingesting Veratrum alkaloids. Cardiovascular consequences
such bradycardia, hypotension, and aberrant cardiac conduction, as well as death
from cardiovascular collapse, are therefore anticipated [34].
166 Nuraniye Eruygur and Sanem Hoşbaş Coşkun
4.3.12 Helleborus niger (Christmas rose)
Since 2,500 BC, the ancient Greeks utilized Helleborus niger L. (Helleboros melas), a
plant with potent diuretic, emetic, and narcotic properties that helped them treat psychiatric problems, leprosy, scabies, and deafness [35]. It contains cardenolides and saponins, both toxic to the heart and gastrointestinal system. It has a broad spectrum of
pharmacological actions, including diuretic, immunostimulant, cardiotonic, antibacterial, anticancer, and emetic. Buffadenolides, flavonoids, and phenolic heterosides are
among the several secondary metabolites found in H. odorus Waldst. et Kit. [36]. Traditionally used as a treatment for menstrual issues and as a diuretic, symptoms of
H. niger poisoning include vomiting, diarrhea, dizziness, arrhythmias, and death [37].
4.3.13 Mandragora officinarum (mandrake)
Tropane alkaloids, such as scopolamine, hyoscyamine, and atropine, are found in the
roots and rhizomes of the European mandrake (Mandragora officinarum L.), and they
have long been used in medicine. The histological characteristics of the two species’
roots and rhizomes are the same and comparable to those of Atropa belladonna roots,
according to investigations. It was used in ancient times as an anesthetic and sedative.
In small doses, it was also used to treat muscle spasms and arthritis. Symptoms of
toxic effects include hallucinations, delirium, vomiting, and heart failure. Overdose
can lead to death [38].
4.3.14 Ageratina altissima (white snakeroot)
The perennial plant Ageratina altissima (L.) King & H. Rob, often called Eupatorium
rugosum, is a member of the Asteraceae family. Native to North America, it is also
known by several indigenous names, such as “white snakeroot”, “snakeroot,” or “richweed.” A. altissima contains several toxic components, among which are mainly pyrrolizidine alkaloids [123]. These alkaloids are a group of chemical compounds that are
also found in other plants [124]. They are known for their hepatotoxic effect and their
ability to cause toxic effects in humans, animals, and even insects that feed on these
plants. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids harm liver function. The toxic effect is mainly caused
by their biotransformation in the body into reactive metabolites that damage liver
cells. These metabolites can react with DNA, proteins, and other cellular components,
leading to loss of liver cell integrity, which disrupts normal liver function and can
lead to chronic health problems. Consumption or contact with pyrrolizidine alkaloids
can cause adverse effects on the digestive system, including nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. It contains tremetol, a fat-soluble toxin. This plant was not used medicinally
but caused historical mass poisoning known as “milk sickness” when cattle fed on the
Chapter 4 Medicinal and aromatic plants that are toxic 167
plant and passed the toxin through their milk. Symptoms of poisoning include vomiting, tremors, liver damage, and death [39].
4.3.15 Bryonia alba (white bryony)
Because Bryonia spp. roots and fruits are known to be toxic, the plant is included on
the list of dangerous plants. The short-term toxicity of Bryonia species is wellknown, and it seems to be caused by triterpenic cucurbitacins and their glycosides,
which are found throughout the plant. Cucurbitacins have been suggested as possible anticancer medicines because of their powerful cytotoxic activity. Accidental envenomation may also be partially caused by bryodiofine, a poisonous protein found
in B. Dioica fruits. More common in minors, bryony intoxication is typically reported to occur after consuming the fruits rather than the difficult-to-reach roots.
Rarely are fatal problems noted; patients often arrive with pallor, sweating, convulsions, respiratory and cardiac problems, and symptoms related to the digestive
tract, including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal discomfort. Activated
carbon and diazepam should be used as part of a symptomatic therapy for acute
poisoning in situations of convulsions. However, the long-term consequences of bryony use are yet unclear, particularly with regard to potential harmful kidney activities [40].
4.3.16 Colchicum autumnale (autumn crocus)
Colchicine is a neutral, lipophilic alkaloid with mild anti-inflammatory properties, derived from the plants Colchicum autumnale (autumn crocus, meadow saffron) and
Gloriosa superba (glory lily). Historically, it has been used to treat acute gout and is
FDA-approved for both gout prophylaxis and certain types of arthritis and the treatment of familial Mediterranean fever (FMF), where it helps reduce the risk of systemic amyloidosis. Colchicine may also be beneficial for other conditions like recurrent pericarditis, scleroderma, Behcet’s syndrome, and Sweet’s syndrome, though
evidence for these uses is often limited and inconclusive. Despite its benefits, colchicine’s use is restricted by its toxicity. It is generally safe when used according to established guidelines for FMF, but gastrointestinal side effects can occur even at recommended doses before acute gout pain relief is achieved. In higher doses, colchicine
can cause severe systemic toxicity. Symptoms of poisoning include abdominal pain,
nausea, vomiting, multi-organ failure, and death. Although acute colchicine poisoning
is rare, it has a high mortality rate, making it crucial for clinicians to recognize and
understand colchicine poisoning [41]. Colchicine intoxication involves multiple organs
and is associated with a poor prognosis when large amounts of the drug are administered. Treatment is primarily supportive and symptomatic due to the rapid distribu-
168 Nuraniye Eruygur and Sanem Hoşbaş Coşkun
tion and binding of colchicine to affected tissues. A novel approach using anticolchicine antibodies has shown promise in experimental models. Key research areas
include the impact of liver and kidney disease on colchicine metabolism, the use of
colchicine levels for diagnosing intoxication and predicting outcomes, and the application of immunotoxicotherapy for colchicine poisoning in humans [42].
4.3.17 Chelidonium majus Linn. – Papaveraceae
Chelidonium majus is commonly known as greater celandine, nipplewort, tetterwort, or
simply celandine. It belongs to the Papaveraceae family of perennial herbaceous plants,
which includes poppies. In the genus Chelidonium, it is one of two species. Originally
from Europe and western Asia, the species has spread significantly over North America.
Because it contains a variety of isoquinoline alkaloids, the entire plant is hazardous in
excessive amounts. The right dosage is necessary when using it in herbal medicine. Coptisine is the primary alkaloid found in the plant and root. Allocryptopine, stylopine, protopine, norchelidonine, berberine, chelidonine, sanguinarine, chelerythrine, methyl
2ʹ-(7,8-dihydrosanguinarine-8-yl) acetate, and 8-hydroxydihydrosanguinarine are among
the other alkaloids found. In rats, sanguinarine is especially harmful. Proteolytic enzymes and the phytocystatin chelidostatin, an inhibitor of cysteine protease, are also
present in the distinctive latex [43].
In France, it is a popular folk cure for warts. Chickens are poisoned by the plant.
Officially, the fresh herb is no longer utilized. There are no dose-finding trials available,
and the clinical studies that have been published exhibit significant heterogeneity. Traditionally used to help with vision, greater celandine is now utilized as an antispasmodic, light sedative, and therapy for bronchitis, whooping cough, asthma, jaundice,
gallstones, and gallbladder discomfort. Ringworm, corns, and warts are all treated topically using the latex. On tumor cells, Ukrain, a semisynthetic thiophosphate derivative
of alkaloids from C. majus, has cytotoxic and cytostatic properties. Chelidonium causes
strong exacerbation from motion, liver affections, cough with right-sided chest symptoms, and mental affections that are typical of these. In addition to relieving stomach
discomfort, it also helps with other problems. Eating reduces mental symptoms [44].
4.4 Aromatic plants and poisons
Aromatic plants are known for their fragrant essential oils, which are often used in perfumes, cosmetics, and traditional medicine. While many aromatic plants are valued for
their therapeutic benefits, some contain toxic compounds that can be harmful or even
fatal when misused (Table 4.3). In this section, we will explore some common aromatic
plants that possess both medicinal qualities and poisonous properties (Table 4.4).
Chapter 4 Medicinal and aromatic plants that are toxic 169
Table 4.3: Toxic essential oils and their effects.
Essential oil Toxicity/effects
Wintergreen Contains methyl salicylate, toxic if ingested
Eucalyptus Can cause respiratory distress if inhaled or ingested
Pennyroyal Extremely toxic, especially to pets
Cinnamon Skin irritant, toxic when ingested
Clove Causes skin irritation and toxicity in large amounts
4.4.1 Artemisia absinthium (wormwood)
Artemisia absinthium, commonly known as wormwood and belonging to the Asteraceae family, holds a significant place in the history of medicine. Revered in medieval
Europe as “the most important master against all exhaustions,” this plant is widely
recognized as medicinal across Europe, West Asia, and North America. The plant’s
raw materials, Absinthii herba and Artemisiae absinthii aetheroleum, are rich in biologically active compounds. These include essential oils, bitter sesquiterpenoid lactones, flavonoids, azulenes, phenolic acids, tannins, lignans, and other compounds
contributing to its characteristic bitterness. In official European medicine, wormwood
is employed in both allopathy and homeopathy. Traditional European and Asian practices utilize this species for various health conditions, such as gastrointestinal issues,
helminthiasis (parasitic worm infections), anemia, insomnia, bladder diseases, fever,
and difficult-to-heal wounds [45].
Wormwood’s characteristic aroma comes from thujone, which is a major component of its essential oil. It has a bitter, strong smell. The essential oil is used in aromatherapy to treat digestive disorders and as a stimulant. It has been traditionally used
to make absinthe, a well-known alcoholic beverage. Thujone is the primary toxic compound. It is a neurotoxin that affects the central nervous system by blocking GABA
receptors, leading to overstimulation of the nervous system. Overconsumption of thujone can cause seizures, tremors, hallucinations, and in high doses, it can lead to
death. Absinthe, which contains thujone, was banned in many countries for a long
time due to its toxic effects, though it has been reintroduced with regulated thujone
levels [46].
4.4.2 Sassafras albidum (sassafras)
Sassafras (Sassafras albidum), also known as white sassafras, is a medium-sized, aromatic tree that grows at a moderate rate and is easily recognized by its three distinct
leaf shapes: entire, mitten-shaped, and three-lobed. In northern regions, it remains
shrub-like, but it reaches its largest size in the Great Smoky Mountains, thriving in
170 Nuraniye Eruygur and Sanem Hoşbaş Coşkun
moist, well-drained sandy loam soils within open woodlands. Sassafras often serves
as a pioneer species in abandoned fields, where it plays a significant role in supporting wildlife by providing browse material, often forming dense thickets through underground runners from the parent tree. While its soft, lightweight, and brittle wood
has limited commercial use, the root bark is a source of sassafras oil, widely used in
the perfume industry [47]. Essential oil: The bark and roots of sassafras are known for
their distinctive fragrance, primarily due to safrole, an aromatic compound. Sassafras
oil was historically used as a flavoring agent in root beer and other beverages. The oil
is used in traditional medicine to treat wounds, skin problems, and colds. It has been
used for its pleasant scent in perfumes and soap. Safrole is the main toxic compound
found in sassafras. It is classified as a carcinogen and hepatotoxin (liver toxin). Safrole
is toxic when ingested in large amounts. Long-term exposure or high doses can lead
to liver damage and an increased risk of cancer. Due to its carcinogenic properties,
the FDA banned the use of safrole-containing sassafras oil in foods and beverages in
the 1960s [48].
4.4.3 Lavandula angustifolia (lavender)
Lavander is commonly known as English lavender, garden lavender, Lavandula burnamii, L. dentate, L. dhofarensis, L. latifolia, L. officinalis L., or L. stoechas. Lavender, origi-
nally native to the Mediterranean, Arabian Peninsula, Russia, and Africa, has been valued for its cosmetic and medicinal properties throughout history. Today, it is cultivated
globally, with its fragrant flower oils widely utilized in aromatherapy and various products, including baked goods, candles, cosmetics, detergents, jellies, massage oils, perfumes, powders, shampoos, soaps, and teas. The most commonly used species is English
lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), although other varieties, such as L. burnamii,
L. dentata, L. dhofarensis, L. latifolia, and L. stoechas, are also utilized [49].
Lavender’s distinctive, soothing scent comes from linalool and linalyl acetate. It is
widely used in aromatherapy for its calming and stress-relieving effects. Lavender oil
is commonly used to treat insomnia, anxiety, and skin ailments, and is a popular ingredient in perfumes and cosmetics. Although lavender is generally considered safe,
linalool can be toxic when ingested in large amounts or applied excessively to the
skin. Ingestion of large doses of lavender oil can cause nausea, vomiting, and central
nervous system depression. Topically, it can cause allergic reactions in sensitive individuals. Lavender oil poisoning is rare but can occur, especially in children who accidentally ingest essential oils [50].
Chapter 4 Medicinal and aromatic plants that are toxic 171
4.4.4 Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary)
Rosmarinus officinalis L., commonly known as rosemary, is a medicinal plant from
the Lamiaceae family. While it is well-known for its aromatic properties and culinary
applications, rosemary also holds significant value among indigenous communities in
regions where it grows naturally. Natural antioxidants found in rosemary extracts
can prolong the shelf life of perishable goods. Notably, rosemary extract (E392) has
been authorized by the European Union as a safe and efficient antioxidant for use in
food preservation [51]. The essential oil of rosemary contains camphor, cineole, and
alpha-pinene, which give it a strong, woody fragrance. Rosemary oil is used in aromatherapy to improve memory and concentration. It is also applied topically to treat
muscle pain and improve circulation. Camphor is a potentially toxic compound found
in high concentrations in rosemary oil. Ingesting or inhaling large amounts of camphor can be harmful. Camphor poisoning can lead to nausea, vomiting, seizures, and
respiratory distress. In severe cases, it can cause death. While small doses in culinary
use are generally safe, excessive exposure to rosemary oil or camphor-containing
products can be toxic, especially for children [52].
4.4.5 Mentha pulegium (pennyroyal)
Mentha pulegium, commonly known as European pennyroyal, is also referred to as
squaw mint, mosquito plant, or pudding grass. This flowering plant, part of the Lamiaceae family, is native to Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. Its crushed
leaves emit a strong fragrance resembling spearmint. Traditionally, pennyroyal has
been used as a culinary herb, a folk remedy, and an abortifacient, while its essential
oil is utilized in aromatherapy [53].
Pennyroyal is known for its strong, minty aroma due to pulegone, its primary
component. The oil is used in traditional medicine for colds, fever, and menstrual
problems. Pennyroyal oil has been used in folk medicine to induce menstruation and
as an abortifacient, as well as a repellent for insects. Pulegone is a hepatotoxin and
neurotoxin. It can cause severe liver and kidney damage, as well as nervous system
effects when consumed in toxic amounts. Ingestion of even small amounts of pennyroyal oil can cause nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and liver failure. Larger doses
can result in convulsions, respiratory failure, and death. Pennyroyal oil is highly toxic
and has been linked to multiple cases of fatal poisoning [54, 55].
4.4.6 Eucalyptus globulus (eucalyptus)
Eucalyptus globulus is a species of shrub or flowering tree within the Myrtaceae family. The genus Eucalyptus encompasses over 700 species and has been utilized for var-
172 Nuraniye Eruygur and Sanem Hoşbaş Coşkun
ious purposes throughout human history. Native primarily to Tunisia and Australia,
eucalyptus is also found in Africa and regions ranging from tropical to southern temperate areas of the Americas. The genus includes four subspecies: E. bicostata, E.pseu-
doglobulus, E. globulus, and E. maidenii. Among these, E. globulus is a medium-tolarge evergreen tree with broad leaves, capable of reaching heights up to 70 meters
and a trunk diameter of 4–7 feet. This species is highly valued both nutritionally and
therapeutically due to its distinct chemical composition. Esters, ethers, carboxylic
acids, ketones, aldehydes, alcohols, hydrocarbons, monoterpenes, and sesquiterpenes
are among the many different types of chemicals found in its essential oil. According
to phytochemical analyses, oils isolated from the buds, branches, and fruits mostly
include α-thujene, 1,8-cineole, and aromadendrene, but the leaf oil is rich in 1,8cineole, α-pinene, p-cymene, cryptone, and spathulenol. Thanks to these bioactive
compounds, Eucalyptus globulus exhibits significant antimicrobial, antifungal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-nociceptive, and antioxidant properties [56].
Eucalyptus oil has a sharp, menthol-like scent, primarily due to cineole (eucalyptol), which has decongestant and anti-inflammatory properties. It is commonly used
in steam inhalations to relieve cold symptoms, as well as in massage oils and topical
balms for pain relief. Cineole can be toxic if consumed in large quantities or used improperly. Ingesting large amounts of eucalyptus oil can lead to nausea, vomiting, dizziness, muscle weakness, and respiratory problems. In severe cases, it can lead to
coma or death. Eucalyptus oil should never be ingested in large amounts, particularly
by children, as it can be extremely toxic [57].
4.4.7 Myristica fragrans (nutmeg)
Myristica fragrans, commonly known as nutmeg, is a plant that yields two spices: nutmeg and mace. Nutmeg refers to the seed kernel found within the fruit, while mace is
the red, lacy aril that encases the kernel. This species belongs to the family Myristicaceae, under the order Magnoliales, which encompasses approximately 150 genera and
over 3,000 species. Native to the Moluccas and indigenous to regions such as India,
Indonesia, and Sri Lanka, Myristica species are now widely cultivated in tropical regions across both hemispheres, including South Africa [58]. Nutmeg is widely appreciated not only as a spice but also for its therapeutic properties. Known for its distinctive pleasant aroma and mildly warm flavor, it is a versatile ingredient used to
enhance the taste of baked goods, confections, puddings, meats, sausages, sauces, vegetables, and beverages. Additionally, nutmeg is a key component in curry powders,
teas, and soft drinks, and is often blended into milk or alcoholic beverages for added
flavor.
Nutmeg contains myristicin, an aromatic compound responsible for its warm,
spicy fragrance. In small quantities, nutmeg is used as a spice in cooking and baking,
and its essential oil is used in perfumes and aromatherapy. Myristicin and safrole in