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Chapter 4 Medicinal and aromatic plants that are toxic 173
nutmeg are both toxic when consumed in large doses. Large doses of nutmeg can
cause hallucinations, nausea, dizziness, dry mouth, and in severe cases, convulsions
and heart palpitations. Nutmeg toxicity can lead to coma or death in extreme cases.
Nutmeg should be used in moderation due to the psychoactive and toxic effects of its
essential oils when consumed in large amounts [59].
4.4.8 Thuja occidentalis (white cedar)
Thuja occidentalis, commonly known as arbor vitae or white cedar, is native to eastern North America and cultivated in Europe as an ornamental tree. It was first recognized as a medicinal plant by native Canadians during a sixteenth-century expedition,
where it proved effective in treating scurvy-related weakness. In traditional medicine,
T. occidentalis has been used to address conditions such as bronchial catarrh, enuresis, cystitis, psoriasis, uterine carcinomas, amenorrhea, and rheumatism. Today, it is
primarily utilized in homeopathy, either as a mother tincture or in diluted form. Additionally, this medicinal plant is employed in evidence-based phytotherapy, often
combined with other immunomodulating plants like Echinacea purpurea, Echinacea
pallida, and Baptisia tinctoria. It is particularly used for treating acute and chronic
upper respiratory tract infections and serves as an adjunct to antibiotics in managing
severe bacterial infections, including bronchitis, angina, pharyngitis, otitis media, and
sinusitis [60].
The essential oil of white cedar (Thuja occidentalis), widely used in traditional homeopathy and aromatherapy, owes its strong camphor-like scent to the compound
thujone. This oil has been historically employed to alleviate respiratory conditions,
treat skin infections, and support immune health. Thujone, a monoterpene ketone, is
responsible for many of the therapeutic properties attributed to white cedar. However, its potent bioactivity also makes it a neurotoxin when consumed in large quantities, necessitating careful handling and controlled use. Thujone poisoning can lead to
a range of toxic effects, with symptoms including convulsions, dizziness, hallucinations, and in severe cases, loss of consciousness or death. Research has shown that
thujone acts on gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors in the brain, disrupting
inhibitory neurotransmission and causing excitotoxicity, which can result in seizures
and neurological damage [61]. Cases of poisoning have been reported due to the ingestion of thujone-rich essential oils or herbal preparations, underscoring the importance of adhering to recommended dosages.
In regulated therapeutic contexts, such as aromatherapy, the use of white cedar
oil is generally limited to external applications or diffusions at low concentrations to
mitigate risks. Studies emphasize that internal use should only occur under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional due to the narrow margin between its
therapeutic and toxic doses. Furthermore, products containing thujone, including
white cedar oil, are restricted in certain regions to prevent accidental poisoning [62].
174 Nuraniye Eruygur and Sanem Hoşbaş Coşkun
To safely utilize the benefits of white cedar essential oil, consumers are advised to
source products from reputable suppliers who provide detailed information about
thujone content. Additionally, pregnant women, children, and individuals with neurological disorders should avoid using thujone-containing products, as they may be
more susceptible to its adverse effects [63]. Adhering to safety guidelines and recognizing the symptoms of toxicity are crucial steps in harnessing the potential benefits
of white cedar while avoiding its dangers.
4.4.9 Illicium verum (star anise)
Illicium verum Hook. f. (Illiciaceae) is an aromatic evergreen tree with purple-red
flowers and star-shaped fruit that has a distinct anise scent. Native to southern China
and Vietnam, its fruit, known as star anise, is a significant part of traditional Chinese
medicine and is widely used as a spice. The uniquely shaped fruit has been traditionally used in Chinese medicine to treat conditions like vomiting, stomach aches, insomnia, skin inflammation, and rheumatic pain. Additionally, star anise essential oil has
been used topically as an antibacterial and to cure rheumatism. Star anise is a popular spice that was brought to Europe in the seventeenth century. Anethole, a chemical
component, gives it its unique licorice flavor.
Star anise is a rich source of lignans and seco-prezizaane-type sesquiterpenes.
These compounds are chemically unique and occur exclusively in Illicium species,
making them distinctive chemical markers for the genus. These constituents are
known to exhibit a range of biological activities, including neurotoxic and neurotrophic effects [64]. Star anise has a sweet, licorice-like aroma due to anethole. It is
widely used in cooking, perfumes, and traditional medicine. Star anise oil is used to
relieve digestive problems, colds, and coughs. Star anise contains anisatin, which is
toxic when ingested in large amounts. Japanese star anise (Illicium anisatum), which
looks similar, is particularly toxic and should not be confused with the safe edible variety. Poisoning can cause nausea, vomiting, seizures, and neurotoxicity. The consumption of large quantities or contamination with the toxic species can lead to serious effects [65].
4.4.10 Syzygium aromaticum (clove)
Clove, also known as Syzygium aromaticum, is an evergreen tree of the Myrtaceae
family. Indigenous to Indonesia’s Maluku Islands, sometimes referred to as the Spice
Islands, it is widely cultivated in tropical regions, including India, Sri Lanka, Madagascar, and Tanzania. The tree grows to a height of 8–12 meters and has large, oblong,
and glossy leaves with fragrant flower buds that form in clusters [66]. The dried
flower buds are the commercial “cloves,” prized for their intense aroma and flavor.
Chapter 4 Medicinal and aromatic plants that are toxic 175
These buds are harvested when they transition from green to pink and are then sundried. Clove is valued not only as a spice but also for its applications in traditional
and modern medicine, cosmetics, and perfumery [67].
Cloves are a rich source of phytochemicals, including essential oils, tannins, flavonoids, and triterpenes. The primary bioactive compound is eugenol, which constitutes 70–85% of the essential oil and is responsible for clove’s characteristic aroma
and medicinal properties [68]. Other notable compounds include acetyl eugenol, βcaryophyllene, vanillin, and gallotannic acid. These phytochemicals contribute to
clove’s diverse biological activities, such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, antifungal,
anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and anticancer effects [69, 70]. For instance, eugenol
exhibits potent free radical scavenging and lipid peroxidation inhibition, making it
a valuable natural antioxidant. Additionally, clove oil is widely used in dentistry for
its anesthetic and antiseptic properties, particularly in treating toothaches and oral
infections. The broad spectrum of activities attributed to cloves underscores its importance in both traditional medicine and modern pharmacology.
Clove oil is used in dentistry for its analgesic properties and in traditional medicine to treat infections and digestive issues. Eugenol in high concentrations can be
toxic, causing liver damage and respiratory distress when ingested in large quantities.
Overconsumption of clove oil can cause nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and liver
failure. It can also lead to seizures in extreme cases [71].
4.4.11 Juniperus sabina (savin juniper)
Juniperus sabina, commonly known as savin juniper, is a low-growing, evergreen
shrub belonging to the Cupressaceae family. It is native to mountainous regions of
Central and Southern Europe, extending to parts of Central and Western Asia. The
plant typically grows to a height of 1–2 meters, forming dense, spreading mats. Its
leaves are scale-like, dark green, and emit a strong, pungent odor when crushed. The
plant produces small, berry-like cones that mature from green to a bluish-black color.
Due to its adaptability, J. sabina is often found on rocky slopes and poor soils, making
it a vital component of erosion control in its native habitat. However, it is also noted
for its toxicity, especially its essential oils, which limits its use in conventional landscaping and grazing regions [72].
J. sabina contains a diverse range of bioactive compounds, including essential oils
rich in sabinene, sabinol, and thujone, as well as diterpenes, lignans, and flavonoids
[73]. These phytochemicals confer the plant with notable biological properties, such as
antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, and cytotoxic and abortifacient activities [74–75]. The essential oil of J. sabina is known for its strong cytotoxic and proapoptotic effects, which have shown potential in cancer studies. However, the presence
of thujone, a toxic compound, poses safety concerns, particularly in medicinal applications. Traditionally, J. sabina has been used in folk medicine for the treatment of
176 Nuraniye Eruygur and Sanem Hoşbaş Coşkun
skin conditions, warts, and respiratory ailments, but its use is strictly regulated due to
its high toxicity. The plant’s potent bioactivity and phytochemical diversity make it a
valuable subject for pharmacological research, particularly for developing antimicrobial agents and studying its cytotoxic mechanisms.
The strong-smelling oil from savin juniper contains sabinene, which gives it a
sharp, pine-like fragrance. Traditionally, the oil has been used in medicine as an abortifacient and to treat skin ailments, though its use is highly discouraged due to its toxicity. Sabinyl acetate and sabinene are toxic compounds that can cause poisoning
when ingested or applied in large amounts. Symptoms of toxicity include gastrointestinal irritation, kidney damage, and miscarriage. In large doses, it can lead to fatal
poisoning [77].
4.4.12 Pimpinella anisum (anise)
An annual herbaceous plant in the Apiaceae family, Pimpinella anisum is sometimes
referred to as anise or aniseed. Originating in Southwest Asia and the Eastern Mediterranean, it is cultivated globally for its aromatic seeds. The plant typically grows to
a height of 50–80 cm and features feathery leaves and umbels of small, white flowers.
The seeds, which are crescent-shaped with fine stripes, are the primary source of its
economic and medicinal value. Anise seeds are rich in essential oil, which constitutes
approximately 2–6% of their weight. The main volatile compound in the essential oil
is trans-anethole, accounting for up to 90%, along with minor components like estragole, limonene, and γ-himachalene. The seeds also contain fatty acids, proteins, flavonoids, and phenolic acids, contributing to their therapeutic properties [78, 79].
Anise exhibits various pharmacological activities, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, antifungal, and spasmolytic effects. Traditionally, it has been used to treat digestive issues, respiratory conditions, and menstrual discomfort. Recent studies also
highlight its potential as an anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, and estrogenic agent.
Despite these benefits, P. anisum contains potentially toxic compounds, such as estragole, which has been implicated as a possible carcinogen when consumed in large
amounts. High doses of anise oil can cause nausea, vomiting, pulmonary edema, and
neurotoxic symptoms such as seizures. Allergic reactions and photosensitivity are
also reported in sensitive individuals. Therefore, while anise remains a valuable plant
in traditional and modern medicine, its usage should be moderated to avoid toxic effects [80].
Anise’s characteristic licorice-like scent comes from anethole. It is used widely in
cooking, aromatherapy, and traditional medicine for digestive relief. Anise oil is used
to treat indigestion, cough, and colic. While generally considered safe, anise oil in
large doses can be harmful, especially due to its high anethole content, which can be
neurotoxic in large quantities. Overconsumption can cause nausea, vomiting, seizures, and respiratory problems, particularly in sensitive individuals [81].
Chapter 4 Medicinal and aromatic plants that are toxic 177
4.4.13 Lavandula stoechas (French lavender)
Lavandula stoechas, commonly known as Spanish or French lavender, is a perennial
aromatic shrub in the Lamiaceae family. Native to the Mediterranean region, it is
widely cultivated for its ornamental and medicinal uses. The plant typically grows to
a height of 30–100 cm and is characterized by narrow, grayish-green leaves and purple flowers arranged in spikes, topped with showy sterile bracts resembling wings.
The essential oil of L. stoechas is its most studied component, consisting primarily of
camphor, fenchone, and 1,8-cineole. These compounds contribute to its distinct
camphoraceous aroma and therapeutic potential. Additionally, the plant contains flavonoids, phenolic acids (such as rosmarinic and caffeic acid), and tannins, which are
responsible for its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities [82, 83].
Lavandula stoechas has been traditionally used for its antimicrobial, antispasmodic, and sedative effects, as well as for managing respiratory and digestive disorders.
Its essential oil, rich in camphor and linalool, is characterized by a strong, fragrant
aroma and exhibits potent antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties. Widely used in aromatherapy, it is valued for alleviating stress and anxiety. Scientific studies have confirmed its biological activities, including significant antimicrobial,
antioxidant, and neuroprotective effects, making it a valuable medicinal plant.
However, the high camphor content of L. stoechas poses toxicity risks if consumed, inhaled, or applied in large amounts. Camphor toxicity can result in neurotoxic effects such as dizziness, nausea, vomiting, confusion, and respiratory distress.
Severe cases may lead to seizures or even death. Additionally, allergic reactions, including dermatitis, have been reported in sensitive individuals. While L. stoechas holds
considerable therapeutic potential, careful dosage and administration are critical to
ensure safety and mitigate its toxic effects [52, 84].
4.4.14 Artemisia vulgaris (mugwort)
Mugwort, or Artemisia vulgaris, is a perennial herbaceous plant that belongs to the Asteraceae family. Although it is indigenous to North Africa, Asia, and Europe, it has
spread to many other regions of the world, including North America. The plant typically
grows up to 1.5 meters in height, with deeply lobed leaves that are green on the upper
surface and silvery-white underneath. Its small, yellowish to reddish flowers form in
terminal panicles, and it is commonly found in wastelands, roadsides, and meadows.
A. vulgaris has a long history of use in traditional medicine, culinary applications, and
spiritual practices, often valued for its aromatic and medicinal properties [85].
The phytochemical profile of A. vulgaris is rich and diverse, contributing to its
broad range of pharmacological activities. The plant contains essential oils dominated
by monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, including camphor, eucalyptol, and borneol. It
also contains flavonoids (quercetin and luteolin), coumarins, phenolic acids (chloro-
178 Nuraniye Eruygur and Sanem Hoşbaş Coşkun
genic acid), tannins, and volatile compounds. These bioactive constituents are responsible for its antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties. Additionally, the presence of artemisinin-related compounds links A. vulgaris to the genus’s
reputation for therapeutic applications [86, 87].
The medicinal properties of A. vulgaris are well-documented, particularly in traditional medicine systems. It has been used to treat gastrointestinal ailments, menstrual
irregularities, and nervous disorders, as well as for wound healing and as an antiparasitic agent. Modern research has supported its potential as an antimicrobial, antimalarial,
anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective agent. Furthermore, A. vulgaris has been studied for its neuroprotective effects, which may be attributed to its antioxidant and antiinflammatory properties [88]. Its essential oil is also widely used in aromatherapy and as
a natural pesticide, enhancing its relevance in both health and agricultural contexts.
Despite its medicinal benefits, A. vulgaris contains toxic compounds, such as thujone, that can pose health risks when consumed in excessive amounts. Thujone is a
neurotoxin that, in high doses, can cause nausea, vomiting, dizziness, and seizures.
Allergic reactions, including dermatitis and respiratory issues, are also common
among sensitive individuals exposed to mugwort pollen, a significant allergen in
many regions. Chronic or high-dose use of A. vulgaris preparations may result in
hepatotoxicity and neurotoxicity, emphasizing the need for careful regulation of its
use. Pregnant women are advised to avoid A. vulgaris due to its potential abortifacient
properties [89]. A. vulgaris is a versatile plant with significant therapeutic potential
due to its rich phytochemical composition and diverse pharmacological activities.
However, its use should be approached cautiously, given the risks associated with its
toxic constituents. Further studies are needed to better understand its mechanisms of
action, therapeutic applications, and safety profiles to maximize its medicinal value
while minimizing potential risks [90].
4.4.15 Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree)
Melaleuca alternifolia, commonly known as tea tree, is a small tree or shrub belonging
to the Myrtaceae family. Native to the subtropical coastal regions of Australia, particularly New South Wales and Queensland, this plant thrives in swamps and riverbanks.
It typically grows to a height of 4–7 meters, with narrow, soft leaves and white or
cream-colored bottlebrush-like flowers. The essential oil derived from its leaves is the
primary source of its medicinal and commercial value. Traditionally, indigenous Australians have used tea tree leaves in herbal infusions to treat coughs and colds and as
a poultice for wounds [91].
The phytochemical composition of M. alternifolia is dominated by terpenes and
their derivatives, which account for its potent biological properties. The primary active component of tea tree oil (TTO) is terpinen-4-ol, which constitutes 30–40% of the
oil. Other significant components include α-terpineol, γ-terpinene, and 1,8-cineole.
Chapter 4 Medicinal and aromatic plants that are toxic 179
These constituents contribute to the oil’s antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities. The composition of TTO is standardized by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO 4730:2017) to ensure consistent therapeutic quality [92].
Tea tree oil exhibits a wide range of biological activities, making it a staple in modern
natural medicine. Its antimicrobial properties are particularly well-documented, showing efficacy against a broad spectrum of bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Studies indicate
that TTO disrupts microbial membranes, leading to cell lysis. It is commonly used in
dermatology for treating acne, fungal infections, and wounds. Additionally, TTO demonstrates anti-inflammatory effects by modulating pro-inflammatory cytokines, further
supporting its use in skin conditions like eczema and psoriasis [93].
Beyond dermatological applications, TTO has shown promise as an antiparasitic
and antiviral agent. Recent studies highlight its potential in managing biofilmassociated infections, a challenging area in antimicrobial therapy. Its insecticidal
properties also make it a valuable natural pesticide. Despite its medicinal uses, TTO
should be used cautiously due to its potential toxicity and allergenicity [94].
While tea tree oil is generally considered safe for topical use in appropriate concentrations, it can be toxic when ingested or used in excessive amounts. Ingestion of
TTO can cause central nervous system depression, leading to symptoms such as
drowsiness, confusion, and ataxia. Severe cases of ingestion may result in coma. Dermal exposure to undiluted TTO can cause irritation, erythema, or allergic contact dermatitis in sensitive individuals. Additionally, certain components, such as 1,8-cineole,
may pose respiratory risks, especially in children. Proper dilution and patch testing
are recommended before use to minimize these risks [95].
Melaleuca alternifolia is a plant with significant therapeutic potential, particularly
as an antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory agent. Its phytochemical richness underpins its diverse applications in medicine and cosmetics. However, its toxicity, especially in concentrated or ingested forms, warrants careful use. Ongoing research is
needed to further elucidate its mechanisms of action and optimize its safe application
in both traditional and modern medical practices.
4.4.16 Pelargonium graveolens (rose geranium)
Pelargonium graveolens, commonly known as rose geranium or geranium, is a perennial herb native to South Africa. This aromatic plant belongs to the Geraniaceae family and is widely cultivated for its fragrant leaves and essential oils. The plant typically grows up to 1 meter in height and has rounded, aromatic, and deeply lobed
leaves. It produces small pink to red flowers with a distinctive sweet floral scent,
which is why it is often used in perfumes and aromatherapy. In traditional medicine,
rose geranium has been used to treat a variety of ailments, including skin conditions,
anxiety, and menstrual disorders [96]. The plant is commonly grown in temperate cli-
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mates and is commercially cultivated for its essential oil, which is rich in both monoterpenes and aldehydes, contributing to its therapeutic properties.
Phytochemically, rose geranium is notable for its essential oils, which contain a
complex mixture of volatile compounds. The major constituents of rose geranium oil
include citronellol, geraniol, and linalool, along with smaller amounts of phenyl ethanol and eugenol. These compounds are responsible for their distinctive rose-like fragrance and are associated with various biological activities. Studies have shown that
geranium oil’s chemical composition can vary depending on the growing conditions,
such as geographical location, climate, and soil composition [97]. This variability in
the oil’s composition can affect its medicinal and commercial applications, highlighting the importance of quality control in its production.
Rose geranium exhibits a wide range of biological activities, most notably its antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. Numerous studies have
demonstrated the antimicrobial efficacy of its essential oil against both gram-positive
and gram-negative bacteria, fungi, and viruses [98, 99]. These antimicrobial effects
make rose geranium oil a valuable component in topical treatments for wound healing, skin infections, and acne. In addition to its antimicrobial properties, P. graveolens
essential oil has demonstrated strong anti-inflammatory properties by lowering cyclooxygenase enzyme activity and preventing the synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokines [100]. This makes it useful for treating conditions like arthritis, inflammatory
skin diseases, and general inflammation.
Moreover, rose geranium is often used in aromatherapy to alleviate symptoms of
anxiety, stress, and depression. Several studies have found that the inhalation of its
essential oil can produce a calming effect, potentially aiding in the reduction of anxiety levels and improving mood [101]. This makes it popular in the treatment of emotional disorders and in promoting relaxation. Additionally, the antioxidant activity of
geranium oil has been confirmed through various assays, demonstrating its potential
as a natural agent in preventing oxidative stress and related diseases such as cardiovascular conditions and aging [102].
Although rose geranium and its essential oil are generally considered safe when
used appropriately, the plant does contain certain compounds that may pose health
risks when misused. One of the primary toxic compounds found in rose geranium oil
is citronellol, which can cause skin irritation or allergic reactions in sensitive individuals. Prolonged or excessive topical use of undiluted essential oil can lead to dermatitis or other allergic reactions, especially in individuals with sensitive skin [103, 104].
Ingesting large amounts of rose geranium essential oil can also lead to toxicity, manifesting as nausea, vomiting, and gastrointestinal distress. Due to its high concentration of active compounds, caution is advised when using the oil, especially during
pregnancy or in children, as it may cause adverse effects such as uterine contractions
or toxicity to the developing fetus [98].
In addition, rose geranium contains trace amounts of eugenol, a compound
known for its toxicity in high doses. Eugenol can cause liver damage, respiratory
Chapter 4 Medicinal and aromatic plants that are toxic 181
problems, and central nervous system depression when consumed in large quantities.
However, these toxic effects are generally not observed when the plant or its oil is
used in moderation and in accordance with recommended dosage guidelines. It is important to note that the safety of essential oils, including rose geranium oil, depends
on the method of use, dosage, and the individual’s sensitivity. Therefore, it is essential
to follow proper guidelines to avoid any adverse reactions [105].
Table 4.4: The common toxic essential oils, their plant origins, approximate toxic doses, and associated
toxic effects.
Essential oil Plant origin Toxic dose Toxicity/effects
Wintergreen Gaultheria
procumbens
Eucalyptus Eucalyptus globulus Toxic if ingested
Pennyroyal Mentha pulegium As little as – mL
Cinnamon Cinnamomum
verum or
Cinnamomum
cassia
Clove Syzygium
aromaticum
Birch Betula lenta Toxic if ingested in
Sweet birch Betula
alleghaniensis
Tansy Tanacetum vulgare Toxic in doses
Sage
(common)
Pine Pinus sylvestris Toxic if ingested in
Salvia officinalis Toxic in large doses
Toxic if ingested in
large amounts
(~– mL)
> mL (adults)
(can be fatal)
Toxic in doses
> mL for adults
Toxic in doses
> mL for adults
large amounts
(>– mL)
Toxic if ingested in
large amounts
> mL
( mL+)
large amounts
Contains methyl salicylate, which is similar to
aspirin. Can cause seizures, nausea, vomiting,
liver damage, and even death if ingested.
Can cause respiratory distress, nausea,
vomiting, abdominal pain, dizziness, and in
severe cases, coma or death.
Highly toxic, especially to pets. Causes liver
damage, kidney failure, seizures, and can be
fatal if ingested.
Skin irritant, especially when used undiluted.
Ingesting large amounts can cause nausea,
vomiting, diarrhea, and even liver toxicity.
Contains eugenol, which can cause skin
irritation, liver damage, and respiratory issues
in large amounts.
Contains methyl salicylate, which can cause
salicylate toxicity (similar to aspirin). Symptoms
include vomiting, tinnitus, and dizziness.
Similar to Birch, causes salicylate poisoning
with symptoms like dizziness, vomiting, and
organ damage.
Contains thujone, which can cause convulsions,
vomiting, and liver damage. Highly toxic if
ingested.
High doses can cause dizziness, nausea,
vomiting, and seizures due to thujone content.
When taken in excess, it might result in
respiratory discomfort, nausea, vomiting, and
diarrhea.
182 Nuraniye Eruygur and Sanem Hoşbaş Coşkun
4.5 Safe use and precautions
The use of poisonous and aromatic plants in traditional medicine and modern phytotherapy has long been a cornerstone of therapeutic practices worldwide. While these
plants offer numerous health benefits due to their rich chemical compositions, their improper or excessive use can pose significant health risks. To ensure the safe use of these
plants, several precautions need to be considered. First and foremost, dosage control is
critical. Since many poisonous plants contain bioactive compounds that can be toxic at
higher concentrations, it is essential that these plants are used only under the guidance
of a trained healthcare professional, particularly those with expertise in herbal medicine. Incorrect dosage or prolonged use can lead to adverse effects such as toxicity,
organ damage, and even death [106]. Therefore, it is recommended that any therapeutic
use of medicinal plants, especially those with toxic potential, be done under professional supervision, and always within the recommended dosage guidelines [107].
In addition to dosage control, monitoring for potential side effects is crucial.
Some poisonous plants may have delayed or cumulative toxic effects that may not be
immediately apparent. Side effects such as nausea, vomiting, dizziness, gastrointestinal discomfort, or more severe reactions like seizures or organ failure can occur,
often as a result of prolonged exposure or misuse. Therefore, individuals using medicinal plants should be well-informed about the potential risks and signs of toxicity.
Regular monitoring of their health is recommended, especially when using plants
known to have potent pharmacological activities [108]. For instance, plants like
Atropa belladonna, Digitalis purpurea, and Aconitum contain compounds that can
cause toxicity at certain doses and lead to symptoms such as arrhythmias, visual disturbances, and paralysis if not carefully monitored [109].
Furthermore, increasing awareness and providing proper education on the safe
use of poisonous and aromatic plants is essential. This includes training those who
work with medicinal plants, such as herbalists, pharmacists, and practitioners of alternative medicine, to properly identify, dose, and apply these plants. Education
should also be extended to the public to prevent unregulated use of potentially harmful plants. A major concern is the unregulated sale and use of herbal products, which
may contain either incorrect species or harmful adulterants. Without adequate training, individuals may misuse these plants, unaware of their dangerous effects [110].
Awareness programs and training initiatives can help ensure that these plants are
used safely, preventing poisoning and other adverse health outcomes.
Lastly, responsible use practices are necessary not only to prevent harm but also
to promote the sustainability of these plants in the wild. Overharvesting and improper
collection can lead to ecological imbalance, reducing the availability of these plants
for future generations. Sustainable harvesting practices, combined with safe usage
guidelines, are essential to preserve the benefits of poisonous and aromatic plants
while minimizing risks to human health and the environment [111].