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198 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
It was once very common in Europe and North America in the areas where
dairy fats and vegetable oils were rare as a spread on bread. Lard was
often consumed mixed into cooked rice along with soy sauce to make lard
rice in Taiwan and Hong Kong as well as mainland China.
Medicinal Uses
Benzoinated lard is used as an emollient and protective. A more common
use however, is as a vehicle in the preparation of ointments as an ointment
base. It is used in the preparation of benzoated lard employed for preparing
the ointments. Lard oil is obtained by expressing the fixed oil from lard at
a low temperature when stearin gets separated from olein. Sometimes, it
is used to prepare the nitrate of mercury ointment.
Non-medical Uses
It is used as a lubricant, cutting oil, wool oil, an illuminant (in light
houses), in perfumery and also in the manufacture of soap. Rendered
lard can be used to produce biofuel. Lard is used in many cuisines as a
cooking fat or as a spread similar to butter. It is an ingredient in sausages
and fillings, and the preparation of pastry. Lard is one of the few edible
oils with a high smoke point. Pure lard is useful for cooking since it
produces little smoke when it is heated, and has a distinct flavour when
combined with other foods. Often, lard is treated with bleaching and
deodourising agents, emulsifiers and antioxidising agents to make it more
consistent and prevent the spoilage. Formerly, lard and other animal fats
were used as an anti-foaming agent in industrial fermentation processes
like brewing.
Adulteration
This is often adulterated with cotton oil and paraffin oil.
OLIVE OIL
Synonym
Oleum olivae.
Synonyms for Olive
Olive, Europen olive, Wild olive, Iron tree, Common olive, Olienhout
(Africanus), Oleastro (Italian), Olivier.
Biological Source
Olive oil is a fixed oil which is expressed from the ripe fruits of Olea
europaea L. (Family: Oleaceae). The richness of the oil in the tree is
reflected in its botanical name, Olea europea as the word ‘oleum’ in Latin
means ‘oil’.
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 199
Olive tree Twig with fruits
Ripe and unripe fruits
Natural oil as cakes Olive oil
Fruits— the source of oil
Geographical Source
The plant appears to be a native of Palestine. It is now grown in Southern
Europe and Mediterranean region. It is also cultivated in USA and Australia.
200 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Italy, Spain, France, Greece and Tunisia produce 90% of the world
production. The leading producers of extra virgin oil are Liguria, Tuscany,
Umbria and Apulia in Italy. The wild tree has its origin in Turkey (older
Asia Minor) and spread to Africa, Australia, Japan and China.
Collection and Preparation
It is prepared by crushing and pressing ripe fruits called ‘Olives’. The entire
olive consists of 20–30% oil and the fruit pulp has 60–80% oil. In the modern
factories hydraulic presses are widely used to squeeze oil out of the fruit
under low pressure. This type of technique is called cold pressing (physical
method) and it generates a very little amount of heat, because of which it
gives the best quality oil called ‘Virgin olive oil’. The further pressing gives
low quality oil. The oil that comes from the last pressing is called olive
residue (pomace) and is generally used for cosmetics, medicines, etc.
Characters
Olive oil is a pale yellow liquid, which sometimes has a greenish tint. The
oil has a slight odour and a bland taste. Olive oil is practically insoluble in
alcohol. It is miscible with organic solvents such as chloroform and ether.
It is stored at a temperature not exceeding 40°C. The extra virgin oil is
derived from the first pressing and possesses the most delicate flavour
and antioxidant properties.
Types of Olive Oil
The International Olive Oil Council (IOOC) has released the Trade Standard
Applying to Olive Oils and olive-Pomace Oils, and the council has provided
the descriptions for different types of oils. The descriptions are as follows:
• Virgin olive oil: This is the most popular variety and well known
cooking oil used for cooking with a surprisingly lower acid content.
This is prepared by mechanical and physical means, and there is no
alteration to the oil after processing. This oil has a free acidity of not
more than 2 gm per 100 grains, and no food additives are permitted in
this oil.
• Extra virgin olive oil: This is a much better variety which is made by
cold pressing the fruits. This is edible oil which has a free acidity
content of no more than 0.5 gm per 100 gm, and no additives are
permitted in this oil. This is considered to be the best for our body.
• Pure (ordinary) olive oil: This is a combination of both refined and virgin
oils which contains a higher acidic content. This has a free acidity content
of no more than 3.3 gm per 100 gm, and this oil is unsuitable for use, does
not contain any additives. This is sometimes sold as ‘refined clove oil’.
• Lampante virgin oil: This is extracted by mechanical (virgin) methods
but not suitable for human consumption without further refining. This
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 201
oil is not recommended for cooking purposes, and is used as a fuel,
for industrial purposes, for technical use and can be refined to make it
edible.
The USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) released the US
standards for Grades of it in 1948. These are still followed in the US. The
USDA grades olive oil in the following four categories, namely: US Grade
A (US-Fancy), US Grade B (US-Choice), US Grade C (US-Standard), and
US Grade D (US-Substandard). This has caused the problems for consumers
in purchasing the right kind of olive oil. This grading is done on the basis
of the free fatty acid content (calculated as oleic acid according to the Official
and Tentative Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official
Agricultural Chemists), the absence of defects (degree of freedom from
cloudiness at 60°F), odour (typical olive oil odour and its variation to offodours), and flavour (typical olive oil flavour and its variation to offflavours). It has given a 100 point score sheet for the olive oil in which free
fatty acid content, the absence of defects; odour and flavour have weights
of 30, 30, 20 and 20 respectively.
Chemical Constituents
Olive oil contains about 75% oleic acid, a mono-unsaturated fatty acid. It
also contains palmitic acid (8–20%) and linoleic acid (4–20%). The untreated
extra virgin olive oil is of the highest quality and has an organoleptic rating
of 6.5, low acidity (1% or less) than the untreated oil with a rating of 5.5
and 2% acidity. The oil consists of saturated fats like palmitic acid (7.5 to
20%), stearic acid (0.5 to 5%), arachidic acid (less than 0.8%), behenic acid
(less than 0.3%), myristic acid (less than 0.1%), monosaturated fats like
oleic acid (55 to 83%), palmitoleic acid (0.3 to 3.5%), polyunsaturated fatty
acids like linoleic acid (3.5 to 21%), linolenic acid (less than 1.5%) and
unsaturated fats. In addition, it has omega-3 fat (less than 1.5 g), omega-6
fat (3.5 to 21 g), vitamin E (93%) and vitamin K (59%). It has a melting
point of minus 6°C, a boiling point of 300°C and a smoke point of 190°C
(virgin) to 210°C (refined). The specific gravity is 0.9150 to 0.9180 at 20°C
(virgin and refined), viscosity of 84 at 20°C (virgin and refined), an iodine
value of 75 to 94 (virgin and refined), an acid value of 6.6 and the
saponification value of 184 to 196 (virgin and refined). It has food energy
of 880 kcal per 100 g.
Behenic acid or docosanoic acid C21H43COOH or C22H44O
2
202 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Vitamin E or alpha-tocopherol (C29H50O2)
Vitamin K/K1 or phylloquinone or menaquinone (C31H50O3)
History of Olive
Olive has been used in Mediterranean countries for thousands of years
and it was referred to as ‘liquid gold’ by Homer. The athletes in ancient
Greece rubbed it all over their bodies in rituals. It has been injected into
the bones of dead saints through holes in their tombs. The olive tree has
been used as a symbol of abundance, glory and peace. Its green branches
were used to crown the victorious in games and war. The crown and
branches were offered to deities as emblems of benediction and
purification and some were found in Tutankhamen’s tomb. Fossil remains
of its ancestor were found near Livorno, Italy which date back to 20 million
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 203
years. The cultivation of olives can be traced to 5th century BC and was
first cultivated in the Eastern part of the Mediterranean in a region called
the ‘fertile crescent’ and later moved westwards. The first cultivation
began in 5000 BC and slowly spread from island of Crete to Syria,
Palestina and Israel came to Southern Turkey, Cyprus and Egypt until
1400 BC. With the expansion of the Greek colonies, the culture reached
Southern Italy and North Africa in 8th century BC and later spread into
Southern France. Under Roman rule the trees were planted in the entire
Mediterranean basin in 1st century AC. King Solomon and King David
of the Hebrews gave much importance for the cultivation of olives and it
is understood that King David even placed the guards to watch over the
groves to ensure the safety of the trees and the precious oil. The trees
were sacred in the Hellenic society of Greece that the people were
condemned to death or exile when they cut down the trees. In ancient
Egypt, Greece and Rome, the oil was infused with flowers and grasses to
be used as medicine and cosmetics. During the excavations in Mycenae,
a list was unearthed which contained fennel, sesame, celery, watercress,
mint, sage, rose, juniper, etc. being added to the olive oil for the
preparation of the ointments. The first recorded extraction of the olive
oil is known from Hebrew Bible which took place during the Exodus
from Egypt during the 13th century BC. According to a legend, the city
of Athens obtained its name because Athenians considered olive oil
essential, preferring the offering of the goddess Athena (an olive tree)
over the offering of Poseidon (a spring of salt water gushing out of a
cliff). In the permanent temple in Jerusalem, according to Jewish
observance, olive oil is the only fuel allowed to be used in the Mishkan
service and for anointing King of Israel (originated from King David and
the last was Tzidkiyahu). In Christianity, olive oil is used for the oil of
Catechumens (used to bless and to strengthen before preparing for
Baptism), oil of the sick (used to confer the sacrament of anointing the
sick), to confer the sacrament of confirmation (as a symbol of Holy Spirit),
in the rites of Baptism, the ordination of priests and bishops and at the
coronation of the monarchs. In Islam, the Quran mentions olive as a sacred
plant and oil is reported to have been recommended by the Prophet
Muhammad for curing over 70 diseases.
Medicinal Uses
It is more popular in North America and other parts of the world. It is
actually a pure fruit juice and does not require any heat or chemicals to
extract. It can be consumed immediately after pressing. Because of its high
monounsaturated fat (oleic acid), vitamin E and antioxidants it is good for
humans. It is known for lowering the bad cholesterol (LDL) and raising
good cholesterol (HDL) and blood pressure, protection against colon, breast
cancer and skin cancer and reducing the stones of the gallbladder. Olive
204 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
oil is used externally as an emollient and to sooth inflamed surfaces. It is
used for psoriasis, eczema, sunburn, mild burns and rheumatism. It is
used as a lubricant for massage. Olive oil is used in the preparation of
liniments, ointments, plasters and soaps. Given internally, olive oil acts
as a demulcent and a mild laxative. The oil is useful in preventing blood
clot formation, platelet aggregation and in avoiding excessive blood
coagulation thereby reducing the incidence of cardiovascular diseases. It
is known to decrease systolic and diastolic blood pressure. It is a good
alternative in diabetes and prevents the onset and delaying of the disease.
The diet rich olive oil helps in weight loss and reduces the abdominal fat
and obesity. It has a key role in the development of the foetus during
pregnancy. It helps in the development of the brain and bones in children,
a source of vitamin E for older people, a natural oxidant which slows
down the process of ageing, helps bile, liver and intestinal function and
diminishes ulcers and gastro-intestinal problems like gastritis. It is a
demulcent and a mild laxative and helps in softening the stools. It also
acts as an ear wax softener at room temperature. It is a potent blocker of
contractions of the intestine and is used to treat borborygmus. The oil
contains oleocanthol which is a non-selective inhibitor of cyclo-oxygenase
similar to ibuprofen. Extravirgin oil is used as a mosituriser for the skin
and effective shaving oil. The most important negative health effect is
the likelihood of development of breast cancer in postmenopausal women
and prostrate cancer.
Side Effects
In spite of a lot of benefits, olive oil does have some side effects. The oil can
cause allergic reactions in some individuals when applied on the skin, like
eczema and skin rashes that prove to be itchy. Since the oil is rich in calories,
overconsumption of it can cause the risk of heart diseases (not more than
2 tsp on a daily basis). The oil may react with diabetes medications and
cause further drop in sugar levels which can be fatal at times. The
consumption of more than the advised quantity the oil can also cause a fall
in the levels of blood pressure and gallbladder blockage and other diseases.
Too much of oil may have completely opposite effect on weight due to the
high fat content in it. The oil should not be heated too long (more than
20–30 seconds) as it has a tendency to burn quickly to lose its beneficial
properties. The oil should not be applied to wounds or cuts without
consultation. When cooking the food for pregnant or lactating women, the
dosage of the oil should be decreased.
Non-medical Uses
The oil offers more nutrition and flavour than other vegetable oil, remains
stable when heated. The virgin oil is higher in its antioxidants and is used
in dips and dressings. The refined oil is reommended for baking and frying.
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 205
The oil is valued for flavour, bouquet and colour in culinary preparations
as well as a fuel for traditional lamps. It can also be used as an excellent
lubricant in place of machine oil.
Religious Uses
In the Roman Catholic, Orthodox and Anglican Churches, the oil is used
for the oil of catechumens (to bless and strengthen those preparing for
baptism), and oil of the sick (to confer the sacrament of anointing of the
sick or unction). Mixed with balsam, the oil is consecrated by bishops as
sacred chrism (to confer the sacrament of confirmation—as a symbol of
the strengthening of the Holy Spirit), in the ordination of priests and
bishops, in the consecration of altars and the churches and also traditionally
in the anointing of monarchs at their coronation. The Eastern Orthodox
Christians still use the oil lamps in the churches, home prayer corners and
in cemeteries with olive oil. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
uses virgin olive oil that has been blessed by the priesthood and this oil is
used for anointing the sick.
In Jewish observance, olive oil was the only fuel that is allowed to be
used in the seven-branched menorah in the Mishkan service during the
Exodus of the tribes of Israel from Egypt, and later in the Temple of
Jerusalem. Another use of the oil in Jewish religion was for anointing the
kings of the Kingdom of Israel, originating from King David.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Essay and Short Answer Questions
1. What are lipids? How are they classified? Describe the different
categories of lipids with examples.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Medicinal and non-medicinal uses of castor oil
b. Uses of fish liver oils
c. Cocoa butter
d. Kokum butter
e. Uses of beeswax
f. Lanoline
g. Chaulmoogra oil
h. Spermaceti oil
i. Lard oil
3. Describe in detail the biological source, chemical constituents and
pharmaceutical uses of linseed oil.
4. Describe the biological source, collection and preparation,
constituents and medicinal uses of clove oil.
206 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
2. Choose the Correct Alternative
1. Beeswax is obtained from: [ ]
a. Sus scrofa b. Apis mellifera
c. Garcinia indica d. Olea europea
2. Taste of kokum butter is: [ ]
a. Acrid b. Sour
c. Bitter d. Salty
3. Volatile oil gets decomposed by: [ ]
a. Higher temperature b. Oxidation
c. Light d. All the above
4. The following can cause allergy: [ ]
a. Wool fat b. Lard
c. Spermaceti d. Olive oil
5. The toxic substance present in the castor oil is: [ ]
a. Phosphorous b. Lipase
c. Ricin d. Invertase
3. Fill in the Blanks
1. Enzymes present in castor seeds are ...................................................
2. Castor oil contains phosphorous in the form of ..................................
3. Cold pressing gives the best quality olive oil called ...........................
4. ........................... is the purified internal fat of the abdomen of hog.
5. Spermaceti is obtained from ................................................................
4. True or False Statements
1. Halibut liver oil is shark liver oil. [True/False]
2. Mango kernel oil is used as a substitute for castor oil. [True/False]
3. Hydnocarpus oil is also called chaulmoogra oil. [True/False]
4. Linseed oil is internally prescribed for painter’s colic. [True/False]
5. Lard contains 40% of solid glycerides and 60% of mixed liquid
glycerides. [True/False]
5. A. Match the following
1. Ispagol [ ] a. Arabic acid
2. Tragacanth [ ] b. Anethole
3. Cod liver oil [ ] c. Aldobionic acid
4. Fennel [ ] d. Bassorin
5. Acacia [ ] e. Vitamin A
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 207
B. Match the following
1. Beeswax [ ] a. Eczema and psoriasis
2. Lard [ ] b. Ointments for sunburn
3. Olive oil [ ] c. For tuberculosis and rickets
4. Shark liver oil [ ] d. Cold creams
5. Cod liver oil [ ] e. Paraffin ointment
C. Match the following
1. Linseed oil [ ] a. Caruncle
2. Triolein [ ] b. Fish liver oil
3. Solid oil [ ] c. High iodine value
4. Castor seed [ ] d. Cocoa butter
5. Liquid fat [ ] e. Non-drying oil