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188 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
cracked nipples of breastfeeding mothers. It can be used to treat chapped
lips, diaper rash, dry skin, itchy skin, minor incisions, minor burns and
abrasions. It can also be used in shaving creams, as an ointment base, etc.
In folk medicine, it is used in the nose to treat head colds. It is used as a
raw material for the production of vitamin D3. Lanolin is generally found
in the baby oils, eye care products, diaper rash products, haemorrhoid
(piles) ointments, lotions and creams, medicated shampoos, make-up
products (lipsticks and foundations), make-up removers and shaving
creams, etc. It is used in different types of colour cosmetics, hair care, skin
care, soaps, topical applications and baby products.
Non-medical Uses
Anhydrous lanolin is used as a lubricant for brass instrument tuning
slides and for making the woolen garments, waterproof and diaper
covers. Commercially, it is used in rust preventing coatings, to create
slippery coating on the propellers and stern gear and to prevent
corrosion on stainless steel. In shipping equipment, it is used to create
slippery surfaces on the propellers and stern gear to which barnacles
cannot adhere. Commercial products like lanocote (with about 85%
lanolin) are used to prevent corrosion in marine fasteners (when two
different materials are in contact with each other and salt water). It is
also valuable as a lubricant grease where corrosion would be a problem.
The base ball players often use it to soften the base ball gloves. Lanoloin
is also a popular additive to moustache wax. When mixed with neatsfoot
oil, beeswax, and glycerol, lanolin is used in various leather treatments
(as in saddle soaps and leather care products). Lanolin poisoning may
occur when the products are swallowed accidentally, but it is not a
health hazard.
Side Effects
Normally, side effects are possible (but do not always occur) that may
occur in medicines that contain wool fat. In case of glaucoma and chest
infection, one must consult a doctor immediately.
Adulteration
The common adulterants are mineral fats like soft paraffin, animal or
vegetable fats and oils.
HYDNOCARPUS OIL
Synonyms
Chaulmoogra oil, Gynocardia oil, Oleum chaulmoograe, Kalaw tree oil,
Gynocardia oil.
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 189
Synonyms for Hydnocarpus
Tuvaraka, Turveraka, Tuvrak, Kushtavairi (Sanskrit), Jangli Almond
(English), Chaulmoogra, Jangli badam, Calmogara, Chalmogra (Persian
and Hindi), Kadu Kawath (Marathi), Kadu kawata or Kowtee
(Maharashtrian), Niradimutt, Maravetti, Maravattai, Marotti (Tamil), Kodi,
Maravatty, Marotti, Nirvatta and Nivetti (Malayalam), Mirolhakai, Suranti,
Toratti, Garudaphala (Kannada), Niradi-vittulu (Telugu), Makulu,
Ratakakunta (Sinhalese).
Biological Source
Chaulmoogra is botanically known to the world as Taraktogenos kurzii,
Hydnocarpus kurzii, Hydnocarpus wightiana, and Hydnocarpus laurifolia
(Family: Achariaceae). This is the fixed oil obtained by cold expression
from the fresh ripe seeds of Hydnocarpus wightiana Blume. (=H. laurifolia),
H. anthelmintica Pier., H. heterophylla and other species of Hydnocarpus
and also of Taraktogenos kurzii King. (Family: Achariaceae). There are about
40 species found in the rain forests from India to Philippines and
Celebes.
Hydnocarpus wightiana Taraktogenos kurzii
(=
H. kurzii
)
Geographical Source
Chulmugra seeds are the seeds of Taraktogenos kurzii King, a tree that grows
in Myanmar (the then Burma). Hydnocarpus seeds are derived from
Hydnocarpus wightiana Blume, a tree growing in South-East and South-West
India, belonging to family Achariaceae. The plant is indigenous to India,
Myanmar (Burma), Indonesia, Malaysia and Philippines. In India, it grows
in the tropical forests along Western Ghats, along the coast from
Maharashtra to Kerala, Assam, Tripura, and often planted on the sides of
the road in hilly areas. The tree is also found in South-East Asia, chiefly in
Indo-Malayan region. It is also cultivated in Sri Lanka, Nigeria and Uganda.
190 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Characters of the Seed
The seeds of T. kurzii are irregularly ovoid, about 2–3 cm long and 1–1.5 cm
wide, with a smooth and brittle testa. The seeds contain an abundant oily,
dark brownish endosperm. Embedded within the endosperm is an embryo
with 2 large, foliaceous, 3-nerved cotyledons and a terete radicle. The seeds
of H. wightiana are similar to those of T. kurzii, but are smaller in their size
about 2 cm long.
Collection and Preparation
During the extraction of chaulmoogra oil, the seeds are collected by the
natives of Myanmar from the ripe fruits, cleaned, washed and dried in the
sun. The seed contains 40–45% fixed oil, chaulmoogra oil. The seeds are
mechanically decorticated (shelled) during which process; the outer seed
coat (testa) is cracked and removed. The collected kernels are beaten to a
paste. The paste is then put into square jute bags (about 30 cm square and
5 cm thick). The bags are piled up and the fixed oil is expressed by a
hydraulic process (this method is followed in Chittagong even today). The
cold-drawn oil is filtered and stored in well-closed containers protected
from light. Hydnocarpus oil is also collected by a similar process from the
seeds of H. wightiana and H. anthelmintica to be legitimately substituted for
chaulmoogra oil, if it agrees in physical and chemical properties designating
its source.
Characters of both the Oils
The two oils, chaulmoogra oil and hydnocarpus oil are very similar in
their physical characters and chemical constituents. The latter is yellow to
brownish yellow oil or a soft fat with a slight characteristic odour and
somewhat acrid taste. The specific gravity is between 0.950 and 0.960, melting
point ranges between 20 and 25°C and the refractive index between 1.472
and 1.476 (at 40°C). The oil has an acid value not more than 25, saponification value ranges between 198 and 204 and iodine value is 93–103.
Chemical Constituents
Chaulmoogra oil contains primarily unsaturated acids like hydnocarpic
acid (45%) and Chaulmoogric acid (25%). Small quantity of glycerides of
palmitic acid is also found in the oil.
Hydnocarpic acid (C16H28O2) and chaulmoogric acid (C18H32O2)
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 191
History of Hydnocarpus Oil
Chaulmoogra oil was used by the Chinese for leprosy from at least 14th
century and about a century ago it began to be used for the same purpose
by the Western physicians. The oil had been used in India and China to
treat leprosy and other diseased skin conditions. Frederic John Mouat
(1854), an English doctor working in Calcutta, reported the possible use of
chaulmoogra oil in treating leprosy, and the oil or its derivatives were the
chief medication by the 1920s. Roger Adams, a chemist and a teacher, was
known for determining the chemical constitution of many natural
substances including chaulmoogra oil.
Medicinal Uses
The cyclic unsaturated fatty acids (hydnocarpic acid and chaulmoogric
acid) present in the oil possess strong antibacterial effect on micrococci of
leprosy and destroy Myobacterium leprae and thus have a positive cure for
leprosy. This was described in the ancient Hindu and Chinese documents.
Esterification of these acids enhances the bactericidal action and thus, the
ethyl esters and salts of hydnocarpic and chaulmoogric acids have been
used in the treatment of leprosy. The esterified oil and the esters of the
derived acids are all employed only for external application in rheumatism,
psoriasis and tuberculosis. This is also the source of Ethyl Chaulmoograte.
The oil has antimicrobial properties and has been used the formulations
to help treat eczema, psoriasis, arthritis, sprains, bruises and skin
inflammations. The oil can be included in creams, lotions, balms, ointments,
lip balms, massage oils and wound care balms. The oil is used locally in
rheumatism, phthisis, tuberculosis and an effective dressing for scaly
eruptions, chronic skin diseases and even syphilis. A seed paste is a home
remedy for ringworm and scabies. The infusion of the seed is used as a
disinfectant for vaginal infections in gonorrhoea and foetid discharge after
child birth. The bark of the plant contains tannins beneficial in fevers.
Side Effects
Chaulmoogra oil is unsafe when it is taken by mouth because it contains
cyanide (cyanogenic glucosides) and might cause poisoning. It can cause
cough, difficult breathing, spasm in the throat, and damage to the kidneys,
visual disorders, pain in the head and muscles and also paralysis. It can
also cause irritation of the skin.
SPERMACETI
Synonyms
Spermawax, Oleum ceti (Latin), Tuk z vorvanì (Czech) Spermaceti, Hvalrav
(Danish) Walrat, Das Walrat, Cetaceum (Dutch and German) Blanc de
192 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
baleine, Spermaceti, Blanc de cachalot, Adipocere (French) Spermatokiros,
Leiko tis falainas, Leiko toi fisitira, Lipos kitois (Greek) Spermaceti, Bianco
di balena (Italian) Eespermacete, Branco de cachalote, Branco de baleia
(Portuguese), Spermatet (Rumanian) spermatset (Russian) Esperma de
ballena, Spermaceti, Blanco de ballena (Spanish) Ispermeçet (Turkish).
Synonyms for Sperm Whale
Ýspermeçet balinasý (Turkish), Pottfisk (Swedish), Ballena esperma
(Spanish), Bolshoi plavun (Russian), Cachalote (Portuguese and
Spanish), Paus sperma (Malay), Kigutilissuaq (Korean), Makko-kujira
(Japanese), Capidoglio (Italian), Ikan paus sperma (Indonesian), Pottfisch
(German), Cachalot (French), Kaizilot, Potvis (Dutch), Pot whale, Sperm
whale, Spermacet whale (English).
Biological Source
Spermaceti (from Greek, sperma means the ‘seed’ and from Latin, cetus
means ‘whale’) is a concrete solid or semiliquid waxy substance contained
in the large cavity in front of the cranium near the upper jaw of sperm
whale, Physeter macrocephalus L. (=Physeter catadon, a largest living toothed
whale (an odontocete), a largest living predator, the deepest diving animal,
with loudest sound produced by any animal and with the largest brain of
any animal) and other species of Physeter (Class: Mammalia; Order Cetacea;
Family: Physeteridae) found in the Indian, Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It
is obtained mixed with sperm oil or oleum ceti. Part of the spermaceti of
commerce is obtained from the bottle-nosed whale, Hyperoodon rostratus
and H. restrains. The crude sperm oil is secreted in a special large cylindrical
organ in the upper region of the huge jaw and above the right nostril. The
spermaceti organ help adjust the whale’s buoyancy, aids in echolocation
and sexual selection. Spermaceti is found in various parts of its body in
small proportions dissolved in its blubber.
Physeter macrocephalus
Sperm whale
Geographical Source
Sperm whales are found in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans. These
gregarious animals inhabit Pacific ocean, the Indian archipelago and the
Chinese and Australian seas.
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 193
Collection and Preparation
This large whale which attains a length of about 20 to 30 m is killed. In the
head there is a special cavity filled with a semifluid substance which is
dried and exposed to strong pressure to remove the sperm oil just sufficient
to fill as many as 10 large barrels. The oil from the head of the killed animal
is removed by buckets or by pumping. The oil, on cooling deposits about
10 to 11% of spermaceti wax which is melted in warm water, strained to
remove the impurities and boiled with weak caustic soda solution, washed
with warm water and finally allowed to solidify into spermaceti wax. For
pharmaceutical use, spermaceti is further refined by boiling with alcohol.
This gives white scaly mass of crystalline material.
Characters
Spermaceti occurs in concrete, translucent, pearly white crystalline masses,
with a mild bland taste and a faint fatty odour which can be easily indented
or scraped by the nail, slightly greasy, pulverisable, fusible and combustible.
It is hard and shining which becomes yellow and rancid by exposure to
air. It has a neutral reaction. It is insoluble in water and cold alcohol but
dissolves in fixed and volatile oils, sulphuric acid, ether, chloroform and
boiling rectified spirit (alcohol) and forms crystalline masses as it cools. It
melts near 42–50°C and congeals near 45°C having acid value not more
than 1, saponification value 125.8–134.6 and iodine value 3–44. It has a
specific gravity of 0.905 to 0.945 at 25°C and refractive index of about 1.4333
at 80°C. A botanical alternative is a derivative of jojoba oil, jojoba ester, a
solid wax very similar to spermaceti chemically and physically.
Spermaceti wax Pure oil
Chemical Constituents
Spermaceti [CH
(CH2)14CO2-(CH2)15CH3] contains 85% of the total esters
3
comprising chiefly of mixture of cetyl esters with cetin or cetyl palmitate
(C15H31.COO–C16H33), lauro-stearic acid, cetyl myristate and cetyl stearate.
194 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
It contains acetylic alcohol (ethal or cetyl hydrate or cetyl alcohol
C15H33OH) along with palmitic acid. The former can be obtained from
spermaceti by saponification with alcoholic solution of potassium
hydroxide, diluting with hot water and filtering and crystallising which
forms brilliant colourless crystals melting at 49.5°C. It is commonly
adulterated with stearic acid, stearin, tallow and paraffin wax.
Cetyl palmitate or hexadecyl hexadecanoate
CH3(CH2)14CO2(CH2)15CH3 or(C32H64O2)
History of Spermaceti
In the late 18th century, the growth of the whaling industry brought a first
major change in the making of the candles since the Middle Ages, when
spermaceti, a wax obtained by crystallising the sperm whale oil became
available. Like beeswax, which was earlier utilised in candle making,
spermaceti did not emit a repugnant odour when burnt, and also did not
soften or bend in the summer heat. Earlier historians noted that the first
standard candles were made from spermaceti. Joseph Morgan (1834), an
inventor, introduced a machine which allowed continuous production of
molded candles by the use of a cylinder with a movable piston which ejected
the solidified candles. Further development occurred in 1850 with the
production of paraffin wax from oil and coal shales. The art of producing
candles from the oil of sperm whales began in America around 1748 and
the process was introduced by Jacob Rodriques Rivera, a Sephardic Jew,
in Newport, Rhode Island.
Medicinal Uses
Spermaceti is used as an emollient and in the preparation of cerates and
ointments, especially cold creams. It is a demulcent and protective and is
used in domestic practice for cough, colds, catarrhal affections and irritation
of intestinal mucous membranes and urinary affections. It is also used in
blisters and ulcers. It is an ingredient in cosmetics, leather working and
industrial lubricants (machine oils). It is also used in making fine wax
candles, pomades, in soaps, in dressing of the fabrics and as a pharmaceutical excipient.
Non-medical Uses
The sperm oil is a popular lubricant and works well for the fine, light
machinery like sewing machines, watches, etc. as it is thin, does not dry
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 195
out and corrode metals. It is also used in heavy machinery like locomotives
and steam-powered looms as it can withstand high temperatures. The oil
has a widespread use in aerospace industry because of its very low freezing
point. A coat of the oil is used to protect the metals from rust and provides
temporary protection for metal components in fire arms as it does not dry out.
Adulteration
Often a mixture of esters of saturated fatty alcohols and fatty acids is used
as a substitute.
LARD OIL
Synonyms
Lard (purified fat of the hog), Adeps, Charbee (vernacular), Oleum adipis,
Ades preseparatus, Axungia porci (Porcina), Prepared (hogs) lard
(Brazilian), Adeps suillis, Schweine-schmalz (German), Axonge, Graisse
de porc, Huile de saindoux, Huile de lard (French), Ladhi toi sialoi (Greek),
Aceite de manteca de cerdo (Spanish).
Synonyms for Pig
Pig, Feral pig, Domestic pig, Old world swine, Razorback, Wild hog, Swine
(English), Kuhukuhu (Maori), Kune-kune (Maori – New Zealand),
Wildschwein (German), Suvar (Hindi), Varah (Sanskrit), Pandi (Telugu),
Chancho (Spanish), Le cochon (French), Suino (Italian), Sor (Kashmiri).
Biological Source
Lard is the purified internal fat of the abdomen of pig/hog (wild boar),
Sus scrofa var. domesticus Gray. (= Sus scrofa, Sus domesticus: Order: Ungulata,
Family: Suidae), a member of the pig family. It is the fresh fat, especially
that fat over the mesentery, omentum, kidneys and its external membranes
of winter-killed hogs.
Source of lard-wild animal Domesticated animal
196 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Geographical Source
Its original distribution ranges from France to European Russia. It has been
introduced into Sweden, Norway, USA, Canada, N. Asia, Japan, Indonesia,
S. America, New Guinea, New Zealand, Australia and other Islands.
Collection and Preparation
Lard is a soft, creamy, white solid or semisolid fat with butter-like
consistency, obtained by rendering (or melting) the fatty tissue of hogs.
Lard varies with the type of the method of production and the fat-bearing
animal parts used during production. Steam-rendered or wet-rendered lard
is made by injecting the steam under pressure into a closed vessel containing
the fats of hog. The open-kettle-rendered or dry-rendered (enclosed system)
lards, darker in their colour, are made by melting the fat in steam-jacketed
vessels (the residue is called cracklings). Neutral lard is prepared by melting
the leaf (from around the kidneys) and back fat at about 49°C (120°F).
Continuous rendering involves grinding, rapid heating, and the separation
of the fat from the cells by centrifugation.
It is first exposed to the air, cut into thin slices, beaten in a mortor and
converted into a uniform mass. Then it is put into a vessel with water
and heated till the fat melts and separates from the membranous matter
and strained. To remove the odour, alum and common salt is added to the
lard. For medicinal purposes lard is prepared from the abdominal fat known
as ‘flare’, from which it is obtained by treatment with hot water at a
temperature not exceeding 57°C. The lard has a tendency to become rancid
and thus benzoinated lard is prepared by adding 1% Siam benzoin to the
purified lard. The addition of benzoin tends to retard the development of
rancidity. After preparation, it is soft, creamy-white, solid or semisolid
with butter-like consistency.
Characters
Lard is a soft yellowish to colourless oil with a characteristic aroma, bland
taste, non-rancid and neutral reaction. It dissolves entirely in ether, benzene,
chloroform, petroleum benzin, and carbon disulfide, slightly in alcohol
and insoluble in water. It has an acid value of not more than 1.2, a lower
melting point (40°C) to form a clear liquid and a higher iodine
value (52–66). It should be kept cool in well-closed containers impervious
to fat.
Chemical Constituents
Lard is a fat from pig in both its rendered and un-rendered forms,
which is a semisoft, white fat derived from the fatty parts of the pig, with
a high saturated fatty acid content and no trans fat. Rendering is
by steaming, boiling, or dry heat. It contains 50 to 60% of olein
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 197
(oleum adipis—(C17H33COO)3C3H5 or (C57H
) and 38% of palmitin
104O8
(CH3(CH2)14CO2H or C3H5(OOC16H31)3), margarin and stearin (Tristearin
(C17H35COO)3C3H5 or C3H5(C18H35O2)3 or (C57H
). Of the fatty acids
110O6
present, oleic acid (44–47%) and palmitic acid (25–28%) are predominant
but appreciable amounts of stearic acid (12–14%) and linoleic acid (6–10%)
are also present. Thus, lard contains about 40% of solid glycerides such as
stearin and palmitin and about 60% of mixed liquid glycerides such as
olein. These fractions are sometimes separated by pressure at 0°C and sold
as ‘stearin’ and lard oil, respectively. Lard has a specific gravity of 0.917–
0.938 at 20°C, an iodine value of 45–75, an acid value of 3.4, a saponification
value of 190–205 and a smoke point of 121–218°C.
Lard Purified lard oil
History of Lard Oil
Lard has always been an important cooking and baking staple in cultures
where pork is an important dietary item. During the 19th century, lard
was used as butter in North America and other European nations. Lard
was used widely as a substitute for butter during World War II. It was
common in many people’s diet until the industrial revolution because it
was cheaper than most of the vegetable oils. By late 20th century, lard had
been considered less healthy than vegetable oils, but has been regarded as
a food for the poor people. But, in the 1990s and early 2000s, the special
culinary properties of lard became widely recognised by chefs and bakers
which led to rehabilitation of this fat. Lard was once widely used in the
cuisines of Europe, China and the New World and is still has a significant
role in the British, Central European, Mexican and Chinese cuisines. It is a
traditional ingredient in mince peas and Christmas puddings, lardy cake
and for frying fish and chips in the British cuisine. Traditionally, it is one
of the main ingredients in the Scandinavian pate leverpostei and in Catalan
cuisine; it is still used to make cocoa bases and typical cakes as ensaimades.