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208 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
8
Systematic
Pharmacognostic
Study of Volatile Oils
VOLATILE OILS (ESSENTIAL OILS OR ETHEREAL OILS)
Volatile oils are lipophile liquids which are insoluble in water and cause a
characteristic smell to plants in which they occur. On being exposed to
atmosphere, these evaporate quickly at an ordinary temperature. They
dissolve in 1 : 200 parts of water and impart a characteristic taste and smell
to water as such they are used in the production of aromatic water like
rose water. These oils are readily soluble in alcohol, ether and other lipid
solvents. They possess a specific gravity less than one and are lighter than
water. They have a high refractive index and show optical rotation.
Volatile oils may occur in any part of the plant like leaves, flowers, bark,
seeds, fruits, wood and underground parts. The characteristic plant families
which contain volatile oils are Lamiaceae, Rutaceae, Myrtaceae, Lauraceae,
Piperaceae, Zingiberaceae and Apiaceae. The oils occur in larger
parenchyma cells in the form of special secretory structures like glandular
trichomes, endogenous schizogenous oil cavities and oil canals. The oils
are the products of metabolism formed directly by the protoplasm or by
decomposition of the cell walls or as the products of glycosides. In some
cases, they also occur in combination with resins and gums, and are referred
to as oleo-resins and oleogum-resins.
These oils belong to the group terpenoids or isoprenoids and in plants
occur as monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes in a high frequency. Volatile
oil chemically is a mixture of many constituents in which some predominate
than others as hydrocarbons, alcohols, acids, ethers, esters, aldehydes and
ketones. The constituents are complex and are represented by the mixture
of terpenes (mono, di or sesquiterpenes) and their derivatives and
derivatives of phenyl propane. The odour and the use of a drug are
determined by the predominant constituents of the oil. The oils are variable
in their quality and quantity as the habitat determines their nature.
The oils are isolated by steam distillation or by mechanical methods. They
are extracted with either volatile or nonvolatile solvents.
208
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 209
On the basis of their volatile oil content many crude drugs are used
both medicinally and commercially. The crude drugs in the form of a
powder are used as spices, condiments and flavouring agents. Externally,
the oils are used as counter-irritants in inflammation, swelling and
rheumatism. The oils are also used as carminatives, digestive and
spasmolytic stimulants, bactericidal and antiseptic agents, disinfectants,
diuretics and anthelmintics. They are also used in the manufacture of soaps,
deodourisers, and perfumery and in polishes and household cleaners.
Mentha, coriander, cinnamon, lemon oil, nutmeg, eucalyptus, ginger,
cardamom, tulsi, lemon grass, caraway, cumin, dill, clove, fennel and black
pepper are described bellow.
MENTHA
Synonyms
Lamb mint, American mint, Lammint, Brandy mint, Paparaminta (Sanskrit),
Mint, Menta, Balm mint, Curled mint, Menthe, Bohe, Peppermint,
Pepparmynta, Pepermynte, Na’na, Pepermunt, Hortela, Myata, Seiyohakka, Yang-po-ho, Peparaminta (Hindi), Pudina (Telugu and Tamil).
Synonyms for Peppermint
Spiritus Peppermint oil, Oleum Menthae piperitae, Oil of peppermint,
Pfefferminzol (German), Essence de Menthe poivree (French).
Synonyms for Menthol
Pipmenthol, Peppermint camphor, Alcool mentholique, Menthol gauche,
Camphre de menthe (French), Mentholum, Pfefferminzkampfer, Menthakampfer (German).
Biological Source
Peppermint oil is obtained from dried leaves and flowering tops of Mentha
piperita L. (=M. balsamea Willd.), (Family: Lamiaceae) in Northern India
and Kashmir. M. piperita is a sterile hybrid mint, a cross between M. aquatica
(Watermint) and M. spicata (Spearmint). This was first described by
Linnaeus from the specimens in England where he treated it as a species.
Now, it is universally agreed to be a hybrid. The name is derived from
Mintha or Minthe, a Greek mythological ‘nymph’ and Latin piper meaning
‘pepper’. Astrologically, mint is a herb of Venus. The original name mint
was applied by Theophrastus. According to Greek mythology, the
peppermint plant arose through a quarrel between two women, Mintha
and Proserpine. Pluto, the God of the underworld fell in love with a
beautiful nymph, Mintha. Because of this, his jealous wife, Proserpine, made
a violent quarrel with the girl. Pluto did not succeed to soothe the quarrel.
210 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Mentha piperita
Dry leaves
—leaves Plant in flower
Fruits
Proserpine transformed the girl into a plant. Pluto did not succeed in his
attempt to change her back. So, he gave her the fragrant aroma. Thus, the
plant got the name of the girl.
Geographical Source
The plant is indigenous to and grows wild in Asia, Europe and North
America. It is cultivated in Japan, Germany, England, France, Italy, Bulgaria,
Russia, India and USA. The best peppermint comes from Michigan,
Northern Indiana, New York, Oregon, Indiana of USA and Germany. Many
mint species are native to North temperate regions of India, particularly
Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and Tamil Nadu. USA is a principal producer
of peppermint.
Collection and Preparation
The harvesting of mint leaves can be done at anytime. The fresh leaves
should be used immediately or stored up to a few days in plastic bags in a
fridge. The leaves can also be frozen in ice cube trays. Dried leaves of mint
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 211
should be stored in an air tight container placed in a cool, dark place. The
harvest is usually made just before the flowers open and three successive
yearly crops are usually taken, after which the field is cleared and new
planting is made in a different place. For distillation of the oil, the crop is
cut down and left for a day to partially dry in the shade. Fermentation
should not take place during drying of the herb, as it adversely affects the
quality of the oil. It is then rolled up in mats and is carried to the stills
where the volatile oil is extracted by steam distillation.
Characters
Macroscopic Characters
The leaves are crumpled, ovate-oblong to oblong-lanceolate, dark green
and opposite with a pubescent petiole. The lamina is 4–9 cm in length and
up to 4 cm in breadth with an acute apex, rounded base and coarsely toothed
margin. The colour is light-green to purplish brown and the upper surface
is glabrous while the lower surface is hairy particularly on the midrib and
veins. The inflorescence is verticillaster and compact terminal spike. The
bracts are oblong-lanceolate up to 7 mm in length. The calyx is tubular,
purplish, five-lobed, pubescent and glandular. The corolla is short,
campanulate, light purple and four-lobed. The stamens are four in number,
short and equal. The nutlets are four, ellipsoidal and blackish-brown in
colour. Each nutlet is 0.5 mm in diameter with a characteristic aromatic
odour and an aromatic taste followed by a cooling sensation on drawing
in the breath. This sensation is due to menthol.
Microscopic Characters
A section of the lamina shows an upper epidermis made of large epidermal
cells with few or no stomata. The palisade is a layer of columnar cells rich
in their chloroplasts. Spongy parenchyma cells are irregular with
intercellular spaces and chloroplasts. The lower epidermis shows numerous
elliptic stomata. The regions of mid rib and the veins show glandular hairs
with a stalk and a head. These hairs contain the peppermint oil.
Properties
Mentha oil is colourless to yellow viscid liquid becoming brown on
exposure to air of a peculiar pungent odour and hot taste followed by
cooling sensation. Menthol is colourless, crystalline (acicular or prismatic),
brittle with a strong odour and aromatic taste. It has a melting point of
43°C and a boiling point of 212°C with a specific gravity of 0.890. It is
insoluble in water and glycerine, but dissolves in alcohol, ether, chloroform,
liquid paraffin, petroleum spirit, olive oil and ethereal oils. Menthol liquifies
with camphor, carbolic acid, naphthol, resorcin, thymol, chloral hydrate
or butyl-chloral hydrate.
212 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Peppermint oil Menthol-crystals
Chemical Constituents
The oil contains chiefly a crystalline stearoptin called the menthol (a volatile
secondary alcohol with a molecular formula C
HCH3C3H7 or mint
6H90
camphor (50–60%) and a liquid terpene in addition to glacial acetic acid
and carbon disulphide. American peppermint oil contains 80% menthol
while Japanese oil contains 70–90%. Other important constituents of the
peppermint oil are menthone (a laevogyre ketone C10H18O), menthofuran
(C10H14O), jasmone (C14H18O), menthyl isovalerate (C15H28O2), menthyl
acetate (C12H22O2), limonene (C10H16), pulegone (C10H16O), cineol
(C10H18O), cadinene (C15H24), azulene (C10H8) and several other terpene
derivatives. It also contains flavonoids like methoside and rutin in addition
to carotenes like betaine and choline. Jasmone and esters are responsible
for the pleasant flavour. The leaves contain a volatile oil, menthol, resin,
tannin and gum.
Menthol (C6H90HCH3C3H7) Menthone (C10H18O)
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 213
Menthofuran (C
Menthyl acetate (C
Cineol (C10H18O)
10H14
12H22O2
O)
)
Limonene (C10H16)
Menthyl isovalerate (C
Cadinene (C15H24)
15H28O2
)
Pulegone (C10H16O)
Azulene (C10H8)
Rutin (C27H30O16)
Betaine (C[N+](C)(C)CC([O-])=O)
214 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Choline (C5H14NO+)
Jasmone (C
11H16
O)
History of Mint
Mint is a symbol of wisdom and hospitality. Peppermint is regarded as
‘the world’s oldest medicine’ with archaeological evidence at least as far back
as 10 thousand years ago, dating back to ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome.
Dioscorides described mint for the disorders of the stomach and Pliny
recommended it for the abdominal pain and ailments of the gallbladder.
Pliny also wrote that the Greeks and Romans crowned themselves with
mint at their feasts and adorned their tables with its sprays and their cooks
flavoured the sauces and wines with its essence. There is evidence that
M. piperita was cultivated by the Egyptians. The ancient Assyrians used
mint in their rituals to their fire God. The references related to the value of
mint also appear in the bible. Pharisees collected mint along with dill and
cumin and the Jews used it on the synagogue floor and called the herbs as
Erba Santa Maria which has been followed over centuries in Italian churches.
Mint was a symbol of hospitality for Romans. This has been used for
centuries worldwide as a medicinal and culinary herb. The ancient Greeks
and Egyptians used mint as a stimulant and nerve tonic because of its
odour. In Ayurveda, it is used for treating mouth sores, nausea and
impaired digestion. It is also used as an adjuvant in food for promoting
digestion and as an expectorant in India. Mint is mentioned in the Icelandic
Pharmacopoeias (13th century). The plant came into use in the Western
European medicine in the middle of the 18th century and was first used in
England. The great botanist of the 17th century, Ray, recognised the plant
as a distinct species and published it in the second edition of his Synopsis
stirpium brittanarum (1696) under the name M. palustris (Marsh mint) and
this is the first documentation of mint. Sooner, its medicinal properties
were recognised and the plant was admitted under the name M. piperitis
sapore into the London Pharmacopoeia (1721). A. Vogel wrote that MissouriValley tribes used mint to lower flatulence and fever. The Japanese have
used menthol in medicine as far back as 2000 years and mint was found in
Egyptian graves from 1200 to 600 BC.
Medicinal Uses
It is an antiseptic, deodorant, stimulant, carminative, anti-inflammatory,
anti-spasmodic, diaphoretic, anti-emetic, nervine, anti-microbial, stomachic,
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 215
anaesthetic and rubefacient. Menthol is used as an ingredient in
preparation for the nose and throat, in ointments to relieve local irritation.
It is used as an external application in congestive headaches, rheumatism
and neuralgia, etc. It is also applied on the skin or mucous membrane as
a counter-irritant. It is used in throat lozenges, and also in colds and flu.
Menthol is also used as topical antipruritic and local analgesic. Linimentum
Mentholis (menthol ointment-menthol dissolved in chloroform) is used
in neuralgia, sciatica and lumbago. Mentholeate (menthol dissolved in
oleic acid) is used in neuralgia and pruritis. Insufflatio Mentholis (menthol
mixed with camphor and eucalyptus oil) is inhaled from cotton wool or
with hot water steam for the relief from catarrah. Emplastrum Mentholis
(as plaster) is aplied in rheumatism and lumbago. The oil capsules if taken
for four weeks reduce the irritable bowel syndrome. The oil can be aplied
topically for soothing and cooling on irritant skin due to bees, poison ivy
or poison oak. When applied to the forehead, it reduces the symptoms of
headache. It helps to relieve the painful cramps in the muscles during
menstrual period in women and relaxes the muscles in digestive gas. It
also improves the flow of bile, reduces the swelling and inflammation
from bruises, disorders of stomach and intestine and diseases of the
gallbladder.
Non-medical Uses
Peppermint oil is used in toothpaste, tooth powders, shaving creams, and
different pharmaceutical dosage forms. It is also consumed in the
preparation of chewing gums, candies, jellies, perfumes and essences. It is
also used as a flavouring agent in tea, ice cream, confectionery and tooth
paste, mouthwash, cigarettes, dental creams in addition to shampoos and
soaps.
Other Uses
The leaves and the volatile oil are aromatic, stimulant, carminative and
antispasmodic. The leaf infusion and the oil are used in vomiting, gastric
colic, cholera, diarrhoea, flatulence, etc. It is given in dysmenorrhoea, weak
digestion, hiccups and palpitation. The oil is used locally as anodyne,
anaesthetic, antiseptic and a germicide in herpes zoster and pruritis as a
lotion. It is also used as an inhalation in diphtheria and relieves the tooth
ache caused by caries. The oil is also used as a flavouring agent. The flowers
produce large amount of nectar used in the production of a mild, pleasant
variety of honey. The small amounts are safe but higher doses cause skin
rash, necrosis of skin, interstitial nephritis (kidney damage), dizziness,
confusion, muscle weakness, difficulty in breathing, asthma, purpura of
skin, mouth sores, and irritation of eyes, headache, heartburn, slower heart
rate, muscle tremor, nausea or double vision. The use of the oil and menthol
should be avoided during pregnancy and breastfeeding.
216 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Adulteration
The common adulterants are Spear mint (Mentha viridis) and the leaves of
varieties of Mentha piperita like White mint (M. piperita var. officinalis) and
Black mint (M. piperita var. vulgaris). The peppermint oil is adulterated
with oil of erigeron, castor oil, turpentine oil, copaiba oil, camphor oil,
sassafras oil, etc.
CORIANDER
Synonyms
Coriander seed, Coriandrum, Coliander (English), Koriandersamen or
Koriander or Germeiner coriander (German), Coriandre or Coriander
cultive, Fructus coriandri (French), Cilantro (Espanol), Culantro (Spanish),
Coentro (Portuguese), Koriyun (Greek), Coriandolo comune (Italian),
Kolendra (Polski), Koriander siaty (Slovencina), Chinese parsley, Dhanyaka
and Kustumbari (Sanskrit), Kottimir or Dhania (Hindi), Hu sui, Dhana,
Dhane (Bengali, Gujarati and Maharashtrian), Haveeja, Kishniz (Persian),
Koriyun, Kotambri-beeja, Kothimbir, Kothimira (Telugu), Kottampalari
(Malayalam), Kottumbari (Kannada and Konkani), Kottamalli (Tamil),
Kushniz, Kusbara (Arabic).
Biological Source
Coriander is the dried ripe fruit of Coriandrum sativum L. (Family: Apiaceae)
extensively cultivated in all parts of India for its fruits and seeds. The word
is derived from Latin coriandrum. The Mycenean Greek form of the word
koriandnon is similar to the name of Mino’s daughter Ariadne which later
evolved to koriannon or koriandron. The Greek name koris (meaning—a bug)
is the root for the name coriander.
Coriandrum sativum
The plant in flower
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 217
Coriander flowers
Geographical Source
The plant is indigenous to Italy and grows wild in Southern Europe and
North Africa to South-western Asia. It is widely cultivated in The
Netherlands, Central and Eastern Europe, the Mediterranean (Morocco,
Malta, and Egypt), Northern Africa, USA, China, India and Bangladesh.
Ukraine is the major producer of oil.
Collection and Preparation
The crop will be ready for harvest in about 90 to 110 days. The plants are
pulled when the fruits are fully ripe, start changing from green to brown
colour (drying). The plants are pooled into small stacks in the field, thrashed
with sticks or rubbing with hands, winnowed and cleaned and dried in
partial shade. The plants are pulled out when they are 30–40 days old for
the leaves. When the plants are sufficiently strong and about 5 inches in
length, they are mowed down when the fruits are ripe. They are partially
cured in the field and dried under cover. The fruits are thrashed out and
cleaned. The fresh coriander seeds should be dried in shade to retain the
seed colour and quality. After drying, they are separated by light beating
with sticks. Clean gunny bags lined with paper are used for packing the
seeds and are stored in damp-free aerated rooms.
Characters
Macroscopic Characters
Morphologically, the fruits occur usually as entire cremocarps, which are
subspherical, about 3 to 5 mm in diameter, brownish yellow, crowned by
5 small sepals and a stylopod. Each mericarp has five wavy rather
inconspicuous primary ridges and four straight, more prominent secondary
ridges. The seeds (dry fruits) have a warm, spicy, orange flavour.