Добавил:
Sekretar
kiopkiopkiop18@yandex.ru
t.me/Prokururor I Вовсе не секретарь, но почту проверяю
Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Предмет:
Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5322_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
228 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Adulteration
The cinnamon powder is adulterated with sugar, ground walnut shells,
Galanga rhizome, powdered Cassia buds, etc.
LEMON OIL
Synonyms
Oleum limonis, Limonis cortex, Lemon peel, Ecorce de Limon (French),
Limonenschale or Limonen (German), Limone (Italian), Limon agria or
Limon real or Limon frances (Spanish), Citronnier (French), Citroen
(Dutch), Limon France (Haiti), Limon amarillo (Puerto Rico), Lamoentsji
or Lamubchi (Antilles, The Netherlands), Limpaka or Mahajambiram or
Nimbaka or Vijapura (Sanskrit), Jambira or Paharikaghu or Pahadi-nimbu
(Hindi and Dakkhini), Karnanebu or Gora-nebu (Bengali), Khuttia or
Gulgul (Punjabi), Motunimbu (Gujarati), Thorla-limbu (Maharashtrian),
Periya elimichcham (Tamil), Peddanimma (Telugu), Dodda nimbe hannu
(Kannada).
Biological Source
Lemon oil is obtained from the fresh peel (rind or zest) of the ripe fruit of
Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f. (=Citrus limonum Risso, C. limonia Osbek, C. medica
var. limonium Brandis) (Family: Rutaceae), cultivated in India particularly
Northern India. The name lemon is derived from the oval yellow fruit
(derived from Middle English word limon; Old French word limon; Italian
word limone; Arabic word laymun or limun; Persian word limun). The name
citrus is derived from Greek kedromelon. The Romans shortened the Greek
name to citrus derived from Latin. This is used in many European languages
as Zitrone (German), Citron (French), Sitruuna (Finnish), Citrons (Latvian),
Citron (Czech), Cytryna (Polish), Citrom (Hungarian), Gidron (Armenian),
etc. all of which mean lemon.
Citrus limon
Flower of citrus
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 229
Plant with fruits Ripe fruits
Geographical Source
The plant is a native to Asia. It is now cultivated in Spain, Italy, Socily,
Portugal, Southern USA, Jamaica, and Australia. The largest producer of
lemon is India (16%) followed by Mexico (14.5%), Argentina (10%), Brazil
(8%) and Spain (7%).
Collection and Preparation
Mechanical picking is impossible and the fruits are to be hand-picked. They
cannot be handled roughly and cannot be picked wet. Normally, they are
picked from July to October, anytime after they reach the size with about
25% of juice. Manual hand picking is a common practice. The undersized
fruits are to be discarded. After harvest, they are sorted according to their
colour, washed, coated with a fungicide and cured (stored at 13–14°C and
85–90% of relative humidity) until they are lifted to the market.
The lemon oil comes from the peel of lemon and the manufacturers
who want to extract the oil generally use a cold pressed method that
involves the machinery which presses the oil from the rind. This generally
takes some 101 lemons to get about an ounce of oil. There is yet another
way to make the oil that is to infuse it with another oil (olive oil). The
outside peel is zested by using a citrus zester and a small glass bottle is
filled with lemon peels. The olive oil (or alcohol) is poured over the peels
that they are completely covered in the oil and a lid is tightly placed over
the bottle. The bottle is placed in window in sun and is allowed as such
for several weeks. The contents are shaken once or twice a day to blend
the mixture. The mixture is strained and the peels are thrown away. The
mixture is taken in a shallow bowl and the alcohol is allowed to evaporate.
The oil is stored in an amber-coloured bottle for use when needed. The
orange oil may irritate the skin. Hence, gloves are used during the
preparation of the oil and also avoid getting the oil into eyes and open
wounds.
230 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Characters
Macroscopic Characters
Externally, fresh outer lemon peel or rind of the ripe fruit (Limonis cortex)
is lemon-yellow or dark yellow, smooth, gland-dotted with numerous small
elevations over the large oil-glands embedded in the hypodermal tissue.
The rind is 6–10 mm thick. Internally, the peel is white pithy. It has a fragrant
odour and somewhat a bitter, pungent and aromatic tart taste.
Microscopic Characters
The epidermis is made of small tabular cells. The hypodermal parenchyma
is colourless, thin walled with granular parietal protoplasm rich in yellow
chromoplasts and crystals of calcium oxalate. It has many large elliptic
cavities with globules of volatile oil. The oil has a fragrant distinctive taste
and pungent aromatic odour.
Pieces of rind
Lemon oil Oil cavity in section
Powdered peel
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 231
Chemical Constituents
Oil of the lemon peel (Oleum limonis) consists of 2–4% volatile oil. The other
constituents of the peels are hesperidin, pectin, calcium oxalate and bitter
substances. Oil of lemon is a pale yellow liquid and contains terpenes (about
90% mainly limonene and gamma-terpinene and beta-phellandrene),
sesquiterpenes, aldehyde (citral, about 5% and citronellol; in addition to
citronellol, alpha-terpineol, n-octyl aldehyde and n-nonyl aldehyde) and
esters (about 1% geranyl acetate). The inner layer is without essential oil
but contains bitter flavone glycosides and coumarin derivatives. It is
obtained by either distillation or by simple expression of the finely grated
rind. The juice of the fruit contains about 5% citric acid.
Hesperedin (C28H34O15)
Citrol (C20H21FN2O)
n-octyl aldehyde or octanol (C8H16O)
n-nonyl aldehyde or 1-nonanal (C9H18O)
Citronellol or rhodinol (C10H20O)
Alpha-terpineol (C10H18O)
232 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Geranyl acetate (C12H20O2)
Citric acid (C6H8O7)
History of Lemon
It is presumed that lemons were first grown in India, Northern Burma
and China; its exact origin has remained a mystery and probably it is in
1350–1400. It was known for its antiseptic properties and was used as an
antidote for various poisons in South and South-East Asia. It was introduced
to Persia to Iraq and Egypt around 700 AD. The first record of lemon was
in a 10th century Arabic treatise and it was an ornamental plant in the
early Islamic gardens. Between 1000 and 1150 AD, the plant was distributed
in the Arab world and the Mediterranean region. The fruit entered Europe
in the 1st century AD and the cultivation began only in the middle of the
15th century. It was Christopher Columbus who brought the seeds to
Hispanola through his voyages and introduced it to America (1493). Lemon
juice and sometimes lemon peel is the important ingredient of the famous
Greek yolk-lemon sauce, avgolemono prepared from fish or meat broth,
lemon juice, egg-yolk and a pinch of black pepper.
Medicinal Uses
Oil of lemon is used for flavouring and in perfumery. The oil is carminative.
The oil is used as a local aplication in ophthalmia, with doubtful results.
Mixed with glycerine, the oil is applied to the eruption of acne, to pruritis
of the vulva and scrotum, to sun burns, etc. The oil is also applied to check
the postpartum haemorrhage. The rind is stomachic and carminative.
Lemon juice (Succus limonis) of the ripe fruit is antiscorbutic and refrigerant,
primarily anti-alkaline and secondarily antacid. The bark can be used as a
febrifuge and the seeds as a vermifuge. The juice is a diuretic, antiscorbutic,
astringent and febrifuge. The sweet juice is used to relieve gingivitis,
stomatitis and tongue inflammation. Given with warm water, it is used as
a daily laxative and to prevent common cold. The oil from the seeds is
medicinal. The decoction of the root is used for fever in Cuba, for
gonorrhoea in West Africa and bark or peel infusion relieves colic.
Other Uses
The juice, the pulp and the rind are used in cooking and baking. The fruits
are used in lemonades, marmalades and garnishes. The fruit is used as a
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 233
sauce by Indians, and the pickle is a popular remedy for indigestion. The
rind is used as a flavouring agent in soft drinks, baked goods, puddings,
mixed drinks and iced tea. The rind is used in the preparation of liquor
called limoncello in Southern Italy. Sarangadhara recommended lemon juice
with impure carbonate of potash and honey in rheumatic affections such
as pleurodynia, sciatica, lumbago and pain in the hip joints. Lemon juice
and gun powder is a topical application for scabies. The juice of the baked
lemon with equal quantity of sugar or honey is a best remedy for cough.
Fresh lemon juice taken in the evening relieves dyspepsia with vomiting
and bilious headaches. The juice is also used to neutralise the odour of fish
meat (marination). The juice is used for pies, cakes, cookies, puddings,
confectionery, preservatives, etc. as a flavouring agent. The juice is a stain
remover at home and for bleaching. The oil is used in furniture polish,
detergents, soaps and shampoos as well as perfumes and colognes. The
peel is dehydrated and used as a cattle feed. Lemonade is applied to potted
plants to keep the flowers fresh for a longer time. The wood is carved into
chess men, toys, spoons, etc. Lemons are served with sugar or honey is
useful in sore throat and also act as detergent prior to the administration
of the purgatives. Lemon is the commercial source of citric acid, lemon oil,
pectin, lemon batteries in science experiments, kitchen deodouriser and
nontoxic insecticides. The fruit is rich in vitamin C and helps the body to
fight infections and also to prevent scurvy. Locally, it is a good astringent
and gargle for sore throat. It is antibacterial and antiperiodic. The ripe skin
is carminative and stomachic. The oil from the skin is rubefacient. The
bark of the stem is a bitter stomachic and tonic. The oil from the seed is
used in making soaps. The dry rind is an insect repellant.
NUTMEG
Synonyms
Myristica, Oleum myristicae, Semen Myristicae, Round nutmeg, Common
nutmeg, Fragrant nutmeg, Nutmeg (English), True mace, Fleur de muscade,
Muscadier, Musque, Muscade (French), Muskatbluthe, Myristicasamen,
Muscatbaum, Achter muscatnussbaum (German). Jatiphalam (Sanskrit),
Jaephal (Hindi and Bengali), Zafal (Kashmiri), Jayiphal, Javantri (Punjabi,
Gujarati and Maharastrian), Jajikaya (Telugu), Jadikay (Tamil), Jajikai
(Kannada), Jatika (Malayalam), Jadika (Sinhalese), Zadi-phu (Burmese),
Bush-pala (Malaysian), Zauz-bawwa (Persian), Jawzt-at-Tiyb (Arabic),
Musky nut or moschokarydo (Greek), Nootmuskaatboom (Dutch), Noce
moscata (Italian), Moscadeira (Portuguese), Nuez moscada (Spanish).
Synonyms for Mace
Jatipatri (Sanskrit), Mace (English), Macis (French), Jaepatri (Hindi,
Kannada, Telugu and Maharashtrian), Jauntari (Punjabi), Jadi-pattiri (Tamil
234 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
and Malayalam), Vasavasi (Sinhalese), Zadi-phu-apoen (Burmese), Bungapala (Malaysian), Bazabaza (Persian and Arabic).
Biological Source
The plant is a source of two important spices, the nutmeg and the mace.
This is the only tropical fruit that yields two different spices. Nutmegs are
the dried kernels of the seeds of Myristica fragrans Houttuyn (Family:
Myristicaceae), which is the most important commercial species. Other
species include M. argentea (Papuan nutmeg or Macassar nutmeg from New
Guinea) and M. malabarica (Bombay nutmeg or Wild nutmeg from South
India). The seeds are the nutmeg of commerce and the aril (arillus or
arillode) around the seed when dried is the mace. It is also a source of
other commercial products like essential oils, oleoresins. The word ‘nutmeg’
in English has been derived from ‘notemugge’ of Middle English. The term
‘mace’ in English might have been derived from ‘magha’ from Sanskrit
meaning a kind of herbal drug. The name ‘Myristica’ is derived from the
Greek ‘myron’ meaning ‘bitter’ (taste) and ‘fragrans’ from Latin meaning ‘smell‘.
Myristica fragrans
Leaves Flowers
Nutmeg
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 235
Mature fruit
Geographical Source
The plant is indigenous and a native to the Banda Islands (popular as Spice
Islands, the largest of the islands and a tiny archipelago in Eastern
Indonesia) in the Moluccas of Malay Peninsula and Penang Island,
Indonesia (East Indian Nutmeg). The plant is now widely cultivated not
only in Indonesia but also in Malaysia (Molucca Islands), Sumatra, Java
and Penang), and in Sri Lanka, the Caribbean (Grenada-West Indian
Nutmeg), South Africa and the West Indies and other tropical islands. In
India, it is cultivated in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Indonesia and Grenada
(75% and 20%) dominate the world production and export of nutmeg and
mace. Other producers of nutmeg are India, Malaysia (Penang), Papua
New Guinea, Mauritius, Singapore, USA, Sri Lanka and St. Vincent Islands
(Caribbean).
Collection and Preparation
The nutmeg tree bears the fruit when it is 5–8 years old (West Indian Mace
and East Indian Mace). The fruit turns yellow when it is ripe, and the pulpy
outer pericarp (the husk) splits into 2 halves and exposes a purplish-brown
shiny seed that is surrounded by a red-coloured aril. The fruits are usually
allowed to split and fall to the ground before harvest, and they are collected
as soon as possible (before it bcomes discoloured). The fruits are collected
by hand and sometimes, a long pole (hooked stick) is used to take the
opened pods directly from the tree, which ensures a better quality harvest
(but this can also result in damage to flowers and the younger fruits).
The fruits are opened by hand (orange-yellow pericarp is removed) and
the arillode (mace-scarlet in colour) is removed when dried by cutting with
a small pointed knife. A different option is to soak the nuts in water for
4–12 hours and then squeeze between the thumb and the forefinger until
the nut pops out. The mace is flattened by hand and dried on mats in the
236 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
sun (2–4 hours). After grading, the mace can be fumigated, classified and
bagged.
The seeds (nutmegs) are dried in their shells in the sun which take about
3 to 6 weeks, after which the testa is cracked off (by the machine). The
sound kernels are removed (by floatation), sorted on the basis of their
quality and size, and the best ones are often coated with milk of lime or
powdered slaked lime to prevent the attack of insects. Inferior kernels are
used for expression of oil. Finally, the sorted kernels are bagged and
labelled. The bagged nutmeg is fumigated with methyl bromide.
Characters
Macroscopic Characters
The seeds (nutmegs) are globular, ovoid or ellipsoidal, 20–30 mm in length
and 15–18 mm wide and weigh between 5–10 gm when dry. The colour
is light to dark brown. The testa is reticulately furrowed and deeply
grooved on one side which indicates the position of the raphe. At one
end is a white projection in the centre of which is the micropyle. The
albumen is ruminate and the odour is strong and aromatic and the taste
aromatic. The mace is the dried lacy covering (arillus) of the seed, buff,
reddish or brownish-orange in colour, oily, 25 mm or more in length,
branched and lobed above and united below. It has a fragrant odour and
aromatic taste.
Microscopic Characters
Anatomically, the seed shows perisperm of small, thin walled parenchyma
with brown pigment. It contains few spiral ducts in which large reservoirs
of volatile oil are imbedded. The endosprem is made of large polygonal
parenchyma filled with starch and aleurone grains. The starch grains are
simple or compound (2–20), spheroidal or polygonal with a distinct hilum.
Seed with aril Fruit split open
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 237
Nutmeg—the seed
Nutmeg powder
Mace—the aril
Nutmeg oil
Chemical Constituents
The kernel (nutmeg) contains a volatile oil (5–16%), a fixed oil, proteins,
fat (30%), starch mucilage and ash. The mace contains a yellowish volatile
oil (8–17%), a fixed oil, resin, fat, sugar, dextrin and mucilage. The fixed
oil called ‘butter of nutmeg’ consists of myristin (Oleum myristicae—
methoxy-safrole, about 4 to 8% which is a weak monoamine oxidase
inhibitor), myristic acid (C
14H28O2
), elemicin and safrole. The essential
oil contains myristicin and myristicol. The essential oil of mace consists
of macene. The oil is mostly composed of terpene hydrocarbons like
sabinene, pinene, camphene, phellandrene, terpinene, limonene of about
60–80%, terpene derivatives such as linalool, geraniol, terpineol of about
5–15% and phenylpropanoids like myristicin, elemicin, safrol, and
eugenol of about 15–20%. Both the nutmeg and mace contain about 2%
of lignanes, the nonvolatile dimers of phenylpropanoid constituents of
the oil such as dehydrodiisoeugenol.