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258 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Menthone (C10H18O)
Carvone (C10H14O)
Terpinyl acetate (C
12H20O2
Phellandrene (C10H16)
Sabinene (C10H16)
)
Terpinene (C10H16)
Myrcene (C10H16)
Limonene (C
10H16
)
Borneol (C10H18O)
(8%), caryophyllene, menthone (6%), phellandrene (3%), carvone,
eucalyptole, sabinene (2%), terpinyl acetate (30%), heptane (2%), terpineol
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 259
(45%), myrcene (27%), terpinene, etc. The other constituents of the
cardamom seeds are fixed oil, starch, calcium oxalate, potassium salts,
starch, mucilage, ligneous fiber, manganese and protein. The taste is warm
and spicy.
History of Cardamom
Cardamom has a long history of use and trade in India and it is believed
that it was brought to India in 1214 and until 19th century it was supplied
to the world. The plant grows wild in the monsoon forests of the Western
Ghats in Southern India and it has become popular as the Cardamom
hills until 200 years ago. The fruits have been traded for at least 1000
years in India, and it was known as the ‘Queen of Spices’ while the black
pepper was referred to as the ‘King of Spices’. Charaka Samhita, the medical
compendium written in 2nd century BC refers to cardamom as an
ingredient in some medicinal preparations. Its use during the ceremonies
as an offering is also mentioned in Arthashastra of Kautilya and Taitirriya
Samhita of 4th century BC. At this time, Greeks were importing spices
from the East and they called it as Amomon and Kardamomon and Roman
writers distinguished two varieties but the descriptions were not clear. It
is thought that the Vikings spread it in Scandinavia. The Egyptians
chewed the seeds to use it as a tooth cleaner. The Greeks used it as a
perfume. In India (11th century), cardamom was included as an ingredient
in the preparation of ‘panchasugandha-thambula’ (five-fragrance betel chew)
in the ‘Book of Splendor’ or Manasollasa. It was also included in the recipes
(sherbet and rice dishes) from the court of the Sultan of Mandu (1500).
The Portuguese traveller, Barbosa (1524) described the export of
cardamom from the Malabar Coast, and an international trade in
cardamom was well- developed by the time of Garcia da Orta (1563).
Until colonial times, Kerala continued to monopolise the trade of
cardamom until 19th century when the British colonies established this
as a secondary crop in coffee plantations in other parts of India. Indian
cardamom is preferred in the Middle East, Japan and Russia and ‘Alleppey
Green Extra Bold’ (AGEB), ‘Alleppey Green Bold’ (AGB) and ‘Alleppey
Green Superior’ (AGS) varieties of Kerala have an instant appeal
throughout the world.
Medicinal Uses
In traditional medicine, the fruit and the seed extract is used to treat the
conditions of skin and also to aid in digestion. It is also used in cases of
food poisoning. To treat nausea and indigestion, the seeds are roasted and
boiled with betel nut to make a drink. The tea with added cardamom makes
a tonic which relieves stress symptoms due to depression or overwork
and seeds with honey are known to improve the eyesight. In Ayurveda,
260 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
cardamom is used to treat the disorders of the stomach and the urinary
system, asthma, bronchitis and cardiac problems. It is used to treat colds
mixed with neem and camphor and as an infusion used as a gargle in sore
throat. Seeds are used as drug and flavour. The drug has stimulant,
carminative, stomachic, diuretic, anti-inflammatory and digestive
properties. The drug has also cholagogue and virus-static properties. It is
also used to treat the problems of throat, pulmonary tuberculosis,
inflammation of the eyelids, congestion of the lungs, and also an antidote
for snake venom and scorpion bite.
Non-medicinal Uses
It is widely used as a flavouring agent for sweet and savoury dishes like
rice, meat and vegetables in South Asia and it is also used as a food
preservative because of its antibacterial properties. The seeds are also added
to coffee, tea, confectionery and baked goods as a flavouring agent. It is an
essential ingredient of the drink, Kashmiri kahwa and Kashmiri black tea. The
oil is used to flavour the processed foods and drinks as cordials, bitters,
liqueurs and perfumery in addition to chewing gum. It is also used in the
manufacture of soaps and creams to treat the areas of the skin with red
pigmentation, and in tooth pastes. No toxicity has been reported. In
Scandinavia, it is used in baked goods and confectioneries. In Europe and
North America, it is a component of curry powder and sausages.
Cardamom is used in Oriental rice and meat dishes like pilav (Turkish),
kabsah or majboos (Arabic) and plov (Uzbekistan). Cardamom is popular in
Northern Africa and Eastern Africa where ras el hanout (Moroccan mixture)
or berbere (Ethiopian spice) preparations are made.
Adulteration
The fruits are mainly adulterated with immature fruits, mold and insect
infested fruits, cardamom splits (partially opened fruits). The seeds are
adultered with small pebbles and aromatic seeds of Amomum, Aframomum
and Alpinia species.
TULSI
Synonyms
Holy basil, Sacred basil, Mosquito plant of South Africa, St. Josephwort,
(English), Vishnupriya, Tulasi, Divya, Bharati, Manjari, Arjaka, Bahupatri,
Krishnamul, Krishna tulasi, Vishnu priya (Sanskrit), Basilic Saint (French),
Kala-tulasi, Baranda (Hindi), Krishna-tulasi, Kala tulsi, Kural (Bengali),
Tulasi or Tulsi (Telugu, Tamil, Konkani and Maharashtrian), Kari-tulasi
(Kannada), Shiva-tulasi or Trittavu (Malayalam), Tulshi (Marathi), Madurutalla (Ceylonese).
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 261
Biological Source
Tulsi or Tulasi consists of fresh and dried leaves and seeds (sometimes the
dried whole plant) of Ocimum tenuiflorum L. (=Ocimum sanctum L.) (Family:
Lamiaceae).
Ocimum tenuiflorum
Inflorescence
Powder
Leaves
Tulsi Oil
Geographical Source
Tulasi is a native throughout the Old World tropics and it is cultivated in
pots or on pedestals in Hindu houses and is also grown in temple gardens
in India for religious, ceremonial and medicinal purpose. It is also cultivated
for its volatile oil. The plant grows in Asia, and mainly there are two
morpho-types cultivated in India, the green-leaved Sri Tulasi or Lakshmi
tulasi and the purple-leaved Krishna tulasi. The plant has an important
role with in the Vaishnavite tradition of Hinduism where the devotees
worship the plant.
262 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Collection and Preparation
The leaves of the plant on steam distillation yield a bright yellow coloured
volatile oil with a pleasant odour with an appreciable note of the clove oil.
The crop is harvested at full bloom stage to obtain maximum essential oil
yield and a better quality oil. The first harvest is obtained at 90–95 days of
planting, and thereafter, it may be harvested at every 65–75 day’s interval.
The harvesting should be done on bright sunny days, for high and good
quality oil. The crop should be cut at 15–20 cm above the level of the ground.
It is not desirable to harvest the crop if there was a rain in the previous day.
The oil is collected by steam distillation method from the leaves and
flowering tops. The produce after harvest may be allowed to wilt in the
field for 4–5 hours to reduce the moisture and the bulkiness. The oil quality
and its yield do not diminish up to 6–8 hours after the harvest, but any
further dealy may cause considerable loss in the yield and the quality of
the oil. Steam distillation is superior to hydro-distillation and hydro-cumsteam distillation. The distillation unit should be clean, rust-free and free
of any other odour. The oil obtained is decanted and filtered. The distilled
oil is treated with anhydrous sodium sulphate or common salt at the rate
of 20 gm per litre to remove the moisture, and stored in sealed, ambercoloured glass bottles (or containers) made of stainless steel, glavanised
tanks, and aluminium containers and stored in a cool and dry place. All
the activities are to be recorded.
Characters
Macroscopic Characters
It is an erect, much branched, softly pubescent, aromatic annual herb,
30–75 cm tall. The root is thin and wiry. The stem is herbaceous, branched
and hairy with simple opposite leaves that are strongly scented with a
characteristic taste. The leaves are elliptic-oblong, with petioles, 5 cm long
and slightly toothed. The flowers are white to purplish in terminal elongate
racemes. The fruits are groups of four ellipsoid nutlets, pale brown or red
in colour and the seeds are subglobose and reddish-black.
Microscopic Characters
Under the microscope, the transverse section of the leaf through its mid
rib shows two epidermal layers, an upper and a lower epidermis made of
small quadrangular cells with thin walls and a thin smooth cuticle. The
epidermal trichomes are bent made of 2–6 cells and are glandular with a
single-celled stalk cell ending with round heads made of 2–4 cells. The
palisade tissue consists of long cylindrical cells with chloroplasts and
spongy parenchyma is made of polygonal cells with thin, straight or slightly
wavy side walls. The vascular bundles are collateral with collenchyma.
The stomata are diacytic and occur on both the upper and lower epidermis.
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 263
Chemical Constituents
Tulsi leaves contain bright, yellowish-green and pleasant volatile oil
(0.1–0.9%). Eugenol (1-hydroxy-2-methoxy-4-allylbenzene) is the
predominant (70%) component of the volatile oil. The oil if kept for
sometime crystallises and is known as basil-camphor. The oil contains
terpinen (0.4). Other components are oleanolic acid, ursolic acid, rosmarinic
acid, nerol (6.4), carvacol, methylchavicol, selinene (0.4), pinene (0.4),
Oleanolic acid (C30H48O3)
Ursolic acid (C30H48O3)
Rosmarinic acid (C18H16O8)
264 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Nerol (C10H18O)
Selinene (C
Decylaldehyde (C
)
15H24
10H20
O)
camphene (2.0), decylaldehyde (0.2), limatrol, linalool and caryophyllene
(7.5). It is pungent and bitter in taste.
History of Ocimum
In Sanskrit, ‘tulsi’ means ‘the incomparable one’ and is worshipped
throughout India (for more than five millennia) and is regarded as a consort
of Lord Vishnu of Hindu trinity and considered to be an incarnation of
Tulasi or Vrindavani (Goddess, Mahalakshmi). It is also considered as a
symbol of fidelity and helps in the attainment of spiritual enlightenment.
The plant is the most sacred for Hindus being devoted to Lord Vishnu.
Hindus grow the plants in front of or near their homes in pots. A Hindu
household is considered incomplete without a tulsi plant in the courtyard.
In Varanasi (Banaras), it is grown next to Vishnu temples and in Tulsi
Manas Mandir, tulsi is worshipped along with other Hindu Gods and
Goddesses. Vaishnavites worship tulsi because of their belief that it is one
that pleases Vishnu the most, and they also wear beaded necklaces which
are used as rosaries during chanting made of the stems of the plant. The
tulsi plant occupies the sixth place among the eight objects of worship in
the ritual of the consecration of the kalasha, which contains holy water.
The legend says that in ‘Sri Krishna Tulabharam’, Rukmini, wife of Lord
Krishna could weigh him by placing a single leaf of tulsi on the balancing
pan when Satyabhama failed to do so with all her wealth. The two types
are commonly worshipped, ‘Rama tulasi’ with light green leaves and
‘Krishna tulasi’ with dark green leaves. Vaishnavites use japa malas made
from the stems and roots and these are considered auspicious for the wearer.
Tulsi has a rich and fanciful history. It had been a ‘herb royale’ to the French,
a sign of love to Italians and a sacred herb to Indians. Pliny, the Roman
naturalist (1st century AD) reported that Ocimum relieves flatulence. In
the Far East, plant had been used as a remedy for cough, in Africa to expel
the worms and American colonists used it as a component of a snuff to
ease headaches. Ocimum has been used for thousands of years in Ayurveda
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 265
because of its healing properties. Charaka mentioned tulasi in his Charaka
Samhita around 1000 BC. It is considered as an adaptogen which helps in
adapting for stress. In Ayurveda, it is considered as an ‘elixir of life’ as it is
believed to promote longevity. At present, it has been claimed to possess
an ability to keep at bay the deadly swine flu and help in the immediate
recovery of the afflicted persons.
Medicinal Uses
In traditional medicine, Ocimum is used as an expectorant, analgesic,
demulcent, anticancer, antiasthmatic, antiemetic, diaphoretic, antidiabetic,
antiperiodic, antifertility, hepatoprotective, hypotensive and antistress
agent. Tulsi is a mild analgesic and antiseptic. The leaf is demulcent,
expectorant, anticatarrhal and antiperiodic. The extract of leaves is used in
cough, colds, headache and disorders of stomach, inflammation, bronchitis,
catarrh, halitosis, food poisoning, malaria, heart disease, bacterial and viral
infections, foul ulcers, wounds, anorexia and ophthalmopathy. In
traditional medicine, it is used as an anthelmintic, stomachic, expectorant,
antipyretic, galactogogue, insecticidal and in a variety of skin diseases and
genitourinary system. In malaria, gastric diseases and hepatic affections
of children the leaf infusion is administered. Mixed with lime juice, the
juice of the leaf is a cure for ringworm. The leaf juice is a good remedy for
earache. The juice taken in the morning is said to cure chronic fever,
haemorrhage, dysentery and diarrhoea. The fresh juice checks vomiting
and destroys intestinal worms. The pulp of the leaves used as a dressing
controls the infection and hastens the process of wound healing. The leaves
are chewed to control the infections of the gums. The juice is added into
the ears to relieve the earache. The dried powder of the leaf is inhaled like
a snuff to relieve sinusitis. Tulsi is also a mild laxative and vermicidal. It is
a good blood purifier. It is an excellent remedy for cough, allergic bronchitis,
asthma and eosinophilia. The seeds are beneficial in dysuria.
Therapeutically, Ocimum is analgesic, antispasmodic, anthelmintic, antibacterial, anticataract, antifertility, antihyperlipidaemic, anti-inflammatory,
antilipidperoxidative, antioxidant, antistress, antithyroid, antitoxic,
antitussive, antiulcer, cardiovascular, hypoglycemic, hypotensive, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, radioprotective, wound healing and
chemoprotective in action. Research studies suggest that tulasi is a COX-2
inhibitor and can be used as a painkiller due to its high concentration of
eugenol. It is also effective in reducing the blood glucose levels and total
cholesterol level due to its antioxidant property. It also protects from
radiation poisoning and cataracts. In ethnoveterinary medicine, the whole
plant is used in glossitis, ulcers, anthrax, pneumonia, tympanitis,
constipation, liverfluke, stomach pain, dog bite, cannabis poisoning, opacity
of cornea, tachycardia, maggots in the wounds, pain in the abdomen,
stoppage of nutrition, loss of appetite, sore eyes, bleeding, cough and cold,
266 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
eye diseases, udder infection and wound healing in ruminants. In
Ayurveda, the juice is recommended for snake bites, chills, rheumatoid
arthritis, anorexia, amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea etc. It is also used for
stomach cramps, gastric catarrh, vomiting, intestinal catarrh, constipation
and enteritis.
Other Uses
It possesses antibacterial properties and acts as an insecticide and is known
to drive away the mosquitoes. In ringworm infection and other skin
infections it is used locally. The root is febrifuge. The seeds are mucilaginous
and demulcent and are used in urinary problems. The powder of the root
with ghee is an aphrodisiac. The dried plant is stomachic and expectorant.
The decoction of the dried plant is a domestic remedy for croup, catarrah,
bronchitis and diarrhoea. The snuff made from the dry leaves is used in
myiosis and ozaena. The basil is useful in Ancylostoma because of thymol.
The fresh leaf juice, the juice of flower tops and slender roots is used as an
antidote for snake bite. The decoction of the root is useful in febrile
infections. The dried leaves are mixed with the stored grains for centuries
to repel insects. In Thai cuisine, the leaves are used in the preparation of
phad kaphrao. The root is a febrifuge while the seeds are demulcent.
LEMONGRASS
Synonyms
Indian Molissa oil, East Indian Lemongrass oil, Oil of Verbena, Barbed
wire grass, Citronella grass, Geranium grass, Cochin grass, Fever grass
(English), Hierba luisa, Citronnelle or Herbe de citron (French), Zitronengras (German), Erba di limone (Italian), Hierba di limon (Spanish), Sera
(Sinhalese), Takrai (Thai), Bhustrana and Takratrani (Sanskrit), Lemon
grass, Sweet rush, Ginger grass (English), Gandhatrana or Hareechaha
(Hindi), Gandha-bena, Lilicha (Bengali), Sugandhi chaha, Gavatichaha,
Patichahaha (Maharashtrian), Nimmagaddi, Chippagaddi (Telugu),
Karpoorpul (Tamil), Majjige-hullu (Kannada), Chayapul (Malayalam),
Mikkotiu (Burmese), Serai (Malaysian), Sereh (Indonesian), Gavat grass
or Gavati chaha (Marathi).
Biological Source
Lemongrass oil is the volatile oil distilled from the leaves and aerial parts
of the plants, Cymbopogon citratus (DC) Stapf. (=Andropogon citratus,
A. schoenanthus: Guatemala Lemongrass, West Indian Lemongrass, Madagascar Lemongrass) and C. flexuosus Nees ex Stapf. (East Indian Lemongrass, Cochin Lemongrass, British Indian Lemongrass, French Indian
Verbena or Malabar Grass: Family: Poaceae). The genus has about 55 species
at present.
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 267
Cymbopogon citratus
Dried Lemongrass
Plant with rooted ends
Lemongrass oil
Geographical Source
The plant is a native to India (old world) and is cultivated in the gardens.
It is also cultivated in South-east Asia, Southern India, Sri Lanka, Central
Africa, Brazil, Madagascar, Vietnam, Malaysia, China, Paraguay, England,
Guatemala, Central America, South America, USA and West Indies.
Collection and Preparation
Lemongrass comes to harvest 90 days after planting and it is harvested at
50–55 days interval. The grass is cut 10 cm above the level of the ground
and 5–6 cuttings can be taken in a year subject to the conditions of the
climate. The crop can be retained in the field for 5–6 years depending on
the soil and climatic conditions. On the basis of the planting period, 1 or 2
cuttings are taken in the first year, and from the second year onwards,
3–4 cuttings are available. The harvesting consists of fresh leaves and also
the dry or semidried leaves at intervals of 60 days. The crop should not be
allowed to flower profusely as it reduces the overall yield.