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Second Edition
Textbook of
Pharmacognosy
Volume I
Second Edition
Textbook of
Pharmacognosy
Volume I
P Suresh Narayana MSc
Principal (Retired)
SSBN Junior College
Anantapur, AP
T Pullaiah MSc PhD
Professor of Botany (Retired)
Sri Krishnadevaraya University
Anantapur, AP
D Varalakshmi MSc MPhil
Head, Department of Biotechnology (Retired)
Government Degree College
Anantapur, AP
CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt Ltd
New Delhi • Bengaluru • Chennai • Kochi • Kolkata • Mumbai
Bhopal • Bhubaneswar • Hyderabad • Jharkhand • Nagpur • Patna • Pune
Uttarakhand • Dhaka (Bangladesh)
Disaimer
978-93-546-6935-4
Second3
Branches
th
st
nd
Representatives
Preface to the Second Edition
he first edition of Textbook of Pharmacognosy: Volume I was warmly
T
received by the students and teachers and it exhausted within no time.
Many useful suggestions were received by the readers and it necessitated
the printing of this second revised edition. The general plan of the book
remains unchanged in this edition, except the additional information added
in different chapters where it is essential. Besides, addition of a new
appendix, the entire text has been thoroughly revised and updated. We
hope this edition will be more useful to the readers and will continue to
serve the purpose more effectively. The constructive suggestions from the
readers for the purpose of further improvement of this book are cordially
invited.
We express our thanks to CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd, New
Delhi, for their continued cooperation in bringing out this edition in a highly
presentable form within a short time. Finally, we express our deep sense
of gratitude to our family members for their continued cooperation,
encouragement and best support in times of stress during the preparation
of this volume.
P Suresh Narayana
T Pullaiah
D Varalakshmi
Preface to the First Edition
harmacognosy is an “interdisciplinary science of therapeutically active
P
drugs and a large number of them are the natural products, either
from vegetable, animal or mineral sources” being widely used at present
in Allopathy as well as other alternate systems of medicine like Ayurveda,
Unani, Naturopathy, etc. Keeping in mind the importance of such drugs,
this book on Pharmacognosy is prepared and every attempt has been made
to consolidate all the details to provide the students of pharmacy the
relevant information all at one place.
The products from plants, animals and minerals were in use since times
immemorial in the treatment of not only human ailments but also the
domestic animals. It is only in recent times, the constituents from the bodies
of plants and animals have been scientifically processed for use in the
required form and dosage.
The object of this publication is to provide a standard and useful
‘Textbook of Pharmacognosy’ to the students of Pharmacy, and every
sincere effort has been made to incorporate all the details as per their
requirement, with a sincere hope that this publication removes the lacuna
of a text that will be useful for the diploma and degree students of pharmacy
in colleges and universities of JNTU area of Andhra Pradesh, where
pharmacognosy is being taught.
The content of the book is organized in 8 chapters: 1. Pharmacognosy—
History and development, 2. Natural sources of drugs, 3. Classification of
crude drugs, 4. Cultivation of medicinal plants, 5. Good agricultural
practices and strategies, 6. Systematic study of carbohydrates,
7. Pharmacognostic study of lipids and 8. Systematic study of volatile oils.
Each chapter covers introductory details of the concerned category,
classification, biological and geographical sources, methods of collection
and preparation, macroscopic and microscopic characters, properties of
the drug, chemical constituents and pharmaceutical uses of the drug. The
readers will find in this book the synonyms (for the binomials), the
vernacular names of the drugs (in different languages) and the etymology
as well as the derivation of the generic and specific names of the source of
the drug for easy identification of the concerned drug. In addition to the
medicinal uses of the drugs, non-medicinal uses like the culinary uses,
industrial uses, the uses of the parts of the plants other than the main drug
and adulterants have also been added. The history of the drug has been
added as far as possible to make the student follow the time line of use
and historical development. The questions have been prepared by carefully
viii Textbook of Pharmacognosy
going through the entire text and incorporated at the end of each chapter
for the benefit of the students to help prepare for their final examination.
A detailed glossary of the medical terms used in the text has been provided
along with an account of the general tests for easy detection of the
components of the drug as appendices at the end of the text. We have also
included a detailed index at the end of the book.
We have done our best to incorporate all the details as far as possible
and the book has run longer than we have expected. We wish to state that
every care has been taken to bring out an error-free volume, and some
errors and omissions if any might have crept in without our knowledge,
they will be rectified in future editions. The suggestions for the
improvement of the quality of this publication are welcome.
Our sincere thanks are due to authors and publishers of Wikipedia and
other sources of web, books, materia medica, magazines, periodicals,
monographs, bulletins, research reports, etc. Finally, we express our thanks
to IKON Books, Hyderabad, for their continued cooperation in bringing
out this publication in a highly presentable form within a short time.
Finally, we express our deep sense of gratitude to our family members
for their continued cooperation, encouragement and best support in times
of stress during the preparation of this volume.
P Suresh Narayana
pathiki.dharani@gmail.com
T Pullaiah
pullaiah.thammineni@gmail.com
Contents ix
Contents
Preface to the Second Edition v
Preface to the First Edition vii
1. Definition, History, Scope and Development 1–11
of Pharmacognosy
Introduction 1
Pharmacognosy–Definition 2
Pharmacognosy–History 4
Pharmacognosy–Scope and Development 9
Review Questions 10
2. Brief Introduction to Natural Sources of Drugs 12–26
with Examples
Plant (Vegetable) Source 13
Animal Source 16
Mineral (Earth) Source 18
Marine (Aquatic) Source 19
Microorganisms (Microbiological) Source 21
Semi-Synthetic/Synthetic Source 22
Genetic-Engineering/r-DNA Technology Source 23
Review Questions 25
3. Classification of Crude Drugs 27–36
Alphabetical Classification 28
Morphological Classification 28
Taxonomical (Biological) Classification 29
Pharmacological (Therapeutic or Physiological or
Pharmacodynamical) Classification 30
Chemical Classification 31
Chemotaxonomic Classification 32
Serotaxonomical Classification 33
Review Questions 35
4. Cultivation, Collection, Processing, Drying and 37–56
Storage of Medicinal Plants
Introduction 37
Cultivation 38
x Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Factors Influencing Cultivation 39
Cultivability 39
Climatic Factors 40
Altitude 40
Temperature 40
Rainfall/Precipitation 40
Light 41
Edaphic/Soil Factors 41
Soil Factors 41
Additive Factors 41
Collection and Processing 42
Collection 42
Time of Collection 42
Method of Collection/Harvesting 43
Drying 43
Dressing/Garbling 44
Packing 44
Storage/Preservation 44
Plant Hormones and their Application 45
Auxins 46
Gibberellins 47
Cytokinins/Cytokinetins/Phytokinins 47
Ethylene 48
Abscisic Acid 48
Breeding for Improvement 49
Polyploidy 49
Mutation 51
Hybridization 53
Review Questions 54
5. Good Agriculture Practices (GAP) Strategies 57–72
of Obtaining Improved Cultivation of
Medicinal Plants
Introduction 57
Identification/Authentication/Selection 60
Botanical Identity 60
Specimens 61
Seeds and other Propagation Material 61
Cultivation 61
Site Selection 62
Ecological Environment 62
Contents xi
Climate 63
Soil 63
Irrigation and Drainage 63
Plant Maintenance and Protection 64
Harvest 65
Primary Processing 65
Packaging 66
Storage and Transport 66
Personnel 66
Documentation 66
Sample Record 67
Review Questions 71
6. Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of 73–138
Carbohydrates and Derived Products
Carbohydrates 73
Sugars/Saccharides 73
Monosaccharides 73
Oligosaccharides 75
Non-Sugars/Polysaccharides 75
Carbohydrate Derivatives 76
Gum Acacia (Acacia senegal)77
Tragacanth (Astragalus gummifer)83
Agar 88
Starch/Amylum 95
Maize/Corn Starch (Zea mays) 100
Rice Starch (Oryza sativa) 101
Wheat Starch (Triticum aestivum) 102
Potato Starch (Solanum tuberosum) 103
Guar Gum (Cyamopsis tetragonaloba) 111
Pectin 116
Isabgol (Plantago ovata) 120
Honey 124
Review Questions 136
7. Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 139–207
Lipids 139
Simple Lipids 139
Neutral Fats 139
Fats and Oils 140
Drying Oils 141