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158 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
exposed to, in addition to fuel their lamps, soften the leather and also to
make the textiles. It was also used in the animal feed which resulted in the
glossy coats and the healthy constitution of the animals. This observation
encouraged them to consume cod liver oil themselves. The island nation
of Iceland far north in the icy Atlantic is truly remarkable in that the people
who live there have withstood the challenges of the harsh weather and
long seasons of darkness because of cod liver oil which has always been an
important part of their diet. They recognised early the importance of
vitamin A, vitamin D and the essential omega-3-fatty acids found in the
cod liver oil and it was used as a panacea for everything that affected their
health and daily activities. The people in the Iceland as on today live longer
than any other people on earth and they have less heart disease and high
blood pressure than any other culture in the world. They also have the
lowest mortality rate and their women give birth to healthy babies with a
well-developed immune system and optimal brain and eye functions. The
regular use of cod liver oil has supported the overall health of these people
for thousands of years. In the fishing communities, the fishermen used it
to rub it on their aching joints and troublesome condition of the skin. Some
fishermen when they were out at sea to fight colds, are reputed to have
eaten raw fish liver soaked between the two slices of bread. In Nigeria, the
oil is used as a rub for a healthy glow of the skin of the babies. Cod liver oil
was a traditional medicinal drink for Newfoundlanders, and a song was
made by Johnny Burke (1851–1930), a balladder from St. John’s,
Newfoundland. Cod liver oil is known since at least 1615, it has been
recommended medicinally since 1783. The earliest recorded medical use
of cod liver oil dates back to 1789 and is credited to Dr. Darbey, Machester
Infirmary, where he used it for treating rheumatism. The oil was recognised
as a specific remedy against rickets as early as 1824 in the German medical
literature. The oil was also a folk remedy used for centuries for arthritis
and gout and also as a spring tonic among the fishermen families in
Norway, Iceland, Scotland and Newfoundland. We have the stories told
by our grandparents that by taking their daily dose of cod liver oil they
were releived of their rheumatism, aching muscles and stiff joints. It was
commonly used to treat rickets during 1890s. During Second World War,
the oil was imported from Iceland and distributed to pregnant and breastfeeding mothers and children under the age of five and people over forty
to protect against malnutrition. The research carried out on the EPA and
DHA in cod liver oil and other fishes has led to the view that this is beneficial
to the heart and circulatory system.
Medicinal Uses
Cod liver oil is the source of vitamin A and vitamin D. The oil is used in
formulating oleovitamin A and vitamin D products and topical emollients
containing these vitamins. The sterol solution of the sodium salts of the
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 159
fatty acid from cod liver oil known as sodium morrhuate is administered
as a sclerosing agent. The oil is used as a nutritive and growth stimulating
agent in rickets, malnutrition and tuberculosis especially in children. The
oil is widely employed to ease the pain and stiffness of the joints in arthritis.
It has a positive effect on heart, bone and brain and also helps nourish the
skin, hair and nails. The oil is effective in the treatment of household burns
and leaves no blisters. It is used as a complementary measure for longterm treatment of multiple sclerosis. When used during the pregnancy it
lowers the risk of type I diabetes in the offspring. In nursing mothers, it
improves the breast milk, promotes the development of the brain and
increased the amount of vitamin A helping prevent the infections. The oil
is one of the most reliable food source of DHA, EPA, vitamin A and D
needed for a healthy skin, strong bones and teeth, healthy joints,
cardiovascular system, nervous system and prevention of depression and
mood disorders. Vitamin A of the oil is essential for the immune system,
growth of the bones, night vision, and cellular growth, resistance to bacterial
and viral infections and testicular and ovarian function. Vitamin D in the
oil is useful for the absorption and utilisation of calcium and potassium
required for the skeletal growth while Eicosa Pentaenoic Acid (EPA) and
Docosa Hexaenoic Acid (DHA) affect a variety of physiological processes
and reduce the risk of coronary heart disease, reduce the inflammation
throughout the body, helps good eyesight, healthy nervous system and
skin, and essential for the development of the normal brain in unborn
babies. Research has shown that consumption of 1–2 tablespoons of oil
helps to prevent diseases like cancer, diabetes, arthritis, musculoskeletal
pains, problems of the kidneys and high cholesterol.
Adverse Effects
A tablespoon of cod liver oil contains 136% of the preformed vitamin A
(or retinol). This accumulates in the liver and can reach harmful levels
which are sufficient to cause hypervitaminosis A (which harms the bones:
bone mineral density becomes low). Pregnant women should necessarily
consult a doctor when they want to take the oil because of high amount of
retinol in it. Too much intake of the oil can also make asthma worse. Other
side effects include: Large doses of omega-3 fatty acids (in the form of cod
liver oil) can stimulate the production of glucose which contributes to high
levels of long-term blood sugar levels. The excess consumption of the fish
oil leads to bleeding gums and nose bleeds. The oil has a capacity to lower
the blood pressure which has been well-documented. One of the most
common side effects is diarrhoea. A high intake of omega-3 fatty acids
also decreases the ability of the blood to clot and increases the risk of
haemorrhagic stroke. Taking too much of fish oil also interferes with sleep
and thus contributes to insomnia. Other effects are acid reflux, belching
and constant vomiting.
160 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Other Uses
Cod liver oil was sometimes used as the liquid base for the traditional red
ochre paint in Newfoundland, the coating of choice for use on out-buildings
and work buildings associated with cod fishery industry. Vikings used
the oil as a lubricant in ships.
Adulteration
The common adulterants are seal oil and other fish oils the detection of
which is highly difficult.
SHARK LIVER OIL
Synonyms
Oleum selachoidi, Oleum squalae, Machhi-ka-tel (Hindi), Meenaenne
(Tamil), Langue d’oil (French), Olio de fegato squalo (Spanish).
Synonyms for Shark
Tagana (Hindi), Samudrada dodda menu (Kannada), Sora menu (Telugu),
Sor (Hindi), Haj (Danish), Haaien (Dutch), Squale, Requin (French), Der
Hai, Der Haifisch, Hai, Haifisch (German), Ayogdh no (Greek), Squalo, Lo
squalo (Italian), Tubarao, Esqualo (Portuguese), Akula (Russian), Hajar,
Hajfisk (Swedish), Akuli, Likhvar (Ukrainian), Jalkirat (Sanskrit).
Biological Source
Shark liver oil is the fixed oil obtained from the fresh or carefully preserved
livers of various species of the shark, mainly Hypoprion brevirostris Poey
(Negaprion brevirostris is the valid name, Requiem shark) and Galeorhinus
zygopterus. Other species include Squalus carcharius (White shark) found
on the sea shores of Indian coastal towns. These are caught for food and
live in cold, deep oceans. It is also obtained from several other species of
sharks namely Centrophorus squamosus Bon. (=Squalus squamosus,
Lepidorhinus squamosus, Centrophorus foliaceus, Leaf scale gulper shark, Deep
sea shark), Squalus acanthius L.(=Squalus acanthius, Acanthius americanus,
Piked dogfish, Cape shark, Spurdog, Dogfish shark) and Cetorhinus maximus
(Basking shark).
Negaprion brevirostris
—Requiem shark
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 161
Squalus acanthius
Cetorhinus maximus
Centrophorus squamosus
—Piked dogfish
—Basking shark
—Leafscale gulper shark
Geographical Source
Many Northern European countries and Greenland, Norway are producing
shark liver oil on a large scale. In India shark liver oil is obtained on
commercial scale in Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Kerala.
Collection and Preparation
Livers removed from the shark are thoroughly cleaned, freed from fatty
material and adhering tissues (such as gallbladders). The cleaned livers
are minced and heated in a boiling pot at a temperature not exceeding
80°C. The oil thus extracted which floats on the top is separated, washed
and is treated with dehydrating agent to remove traces of water. Then the
oil is taken to the vacuum still for dehydration and chilled to separate
stearin. It is then centrifuged to get the clear oil after removing the
suspended materials in it. Deodourisation is achieved by steaming under
vacuum which removes about 0.02% of the aldehydic and ketonic
impurities to protect the oil from oxidation. The clear oil is manipulated
further to adjust the desired strength of vitamin A as per requirement
(normally 600 units of vitamin A in 1.0 gm) and sometimes fortified with
vitamin D (not less than 85 units) if desired. All through the process, special
care is taken to minimise its exposure to sunlight and air as the oil is
sensitive to light and air. The oil is preserved and stored in well-filled, airtight containers protected from light and in a cool place, to avoid the loss
of vitamins. In addition small amounts of different antioxidants (like
dodecyl gallate and/or octyl gallate) can also be used. With a little variation,
the principle involved in oil extraction is uniform in almost all the cases.
162 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Deep sea shark liver oil Liver of shark
Steamed shark liver oil
Gelatin capsules of oil
Characters
The oil is a fine amber coloured oily liquid (pale yellow to brownish-yellow
in colour) having characteristic fishy odour, but not rancid. Taste is bland
or fishy like cod liver oil but more strong and disagreable. If the oil is left
for a more time, it deposits a white granular substance, stearin to which
the name squalin is applied. It is insoluble in water, slightly soluble in
alcohol and miscible with other solvents like petroleum ether, solvent ether
and chloroform. The oil is richer in iodine and phosphorus than cod liver
oil but contains less bromine and sulphur. The oil has an acid value not
more than 2, a saponification value ranging between 15 and 200 and an
iodine value ranging from 160 to 350.
Chemical Constituents
Shark liver oil contains vitamin A, concentration of which varies from 15000
to 30000 units per gram of the oil. The oil also contains glycerides of
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 163
saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. The oil also contains alkylglycerol,
pristane, squalamine, squalene, vitamins A, D and E, omega-3 fatty acids,
triglycerides, glycerol ethers, cholesterol and fatty alcohols and some
natural trace elements like copper, zinc and iron.
Pristane (C19H40)
Squalamine (C34H65O5N3S)
Squalene (C30H50)
History of Shark Liver Oil
Shark liver oil has been used for centuries as a folk remedy for general
health by the fishermen. Initially, it was employed by the Scandinavian
fishermen to treat certain diseased conditions of skin. Hundreds of years
ago, Japanese fishermen called the liver oil from the deep sea sharks as
samedawa meaning ‘cure all’. In China, the use of oil was recorded in their
ancient pharmaceutical book, ‘Honzukomuko’. In Norway and Sweden, the
oil was traditionally used externally to heal wounds and to protect
the skin from sun. Internally it was used to give stamina and also heal the
164 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
irritation of the respiratory and alimentary system. In Micronesia, it was
long used for many sicknesses and diseases and also used as a tonic. The
Spanish seamen regularly took the ‘oil of the great fish’ to resist cold and
illness.
Medicinal Uses
The oil is a rich source of vitamin A and it is used in the treatment of
xerophthalmia (abnormal dryness of the surface of the conjunctiva) which
occurs as a result of vitamin A deficiency. The oil is also used daily as a
nutrient, demulcent and alterative in cachexia, pulmonary consumption,
atrophy of the body, scrophulous affections of the joints and bones
especially in rickets, ophthalmia, abscesses, suppurating glands,
ulcerations, discharges from the nose or ears and skin diseases. It is also
used in the mesenteric affections of children, in obstinate constipation, in
stricture of the rectum, in chronic hydrocephalus, in the advanced stages
of spasmodic coughs such as whooping cough, lung affections, in chorea,
epilepsy and neuralgia. It is used in chronic rheumatism causing atrophy, in
some types of paralysis and in leprosy. It is used for healing wounds, sores,
irritations of the respiratory tract and alimentary canal and the swollen
lymph nodes. As preparation H, it is an active ingredient of haemorrhoid
creams. The oil is rich in alkylglycerols with anticancer properties which
are found in breast milk and bone marrow. The oil strengthens the immune
system, hay fever, sinusitis and other allergies. It also eases joint pains
from arthritis, maintains healthy skin, has anti-angiogenesis properties and
works against bad effects of radiation. It helps reduce cholesterol, prevents
deep vein thrombosis, prevents scarring in wound healing, and supplies
to the cells oxygen. The oil has an antioxidant property and protects the
body from toxic substances and helps in leaching mercury from the bodies.
It helps in controlling the blood sugar levels in diabetes, helps to achieve a
complete recovery in asthma patients. The oil has also been shown to be of
a great benefit in conditions of chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia
and postviral syndrome. Some believe that the oil from deep water sharks
may prove useful in fighting cancer and boosting the immune system. The
oil is used as a moisturiser in lip balms to prevent chapping. The oil is
always taken along with a vehicle and not on an empty stomach as it causes
nausea. The diet during the course should be plain and nutritious such as
bread, fresh roasted meat along with vegetables, fruits and liquids in a
moderate quantity. The rich food like pastries, fat, meat cream should be
avoided.
Side Effects
The contraindications have not yet been identified. But, when used for a
short-term, the oil is safe in adults. Sometimes, minor side effects related
to the stomach and intestines have been reported. Liver injury also has
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 165
been reported rarely. If taken in higher doses the oil may increase the levels
of cholesterol. The oil can also cause pneumonia in people who accidentally
breathe it into the lungs. Especially when one first starts taking the oil
mild digestive upset such as nausea, diarrhoea and indigestion may occur.
There are no known serious side effects from taking the oil at recommended
doses.
LINSEED OIL
Synonyms
Flax seed oil, Oleum lini, L’huile de lin (French), Olio di lino (Italian), Leinol
(German), Oleo de linhaca (Portuguese), Binale ka thel (Hindi), Linolei
(Danish), Lijnolie (Dutch), Linfroolija (Swedish), Winterlein, Chih-ma.
Synonyms for Linseed
Linseed, Flax plant (English), Atasi (Sanskrit, Telugu and Kannada),
Lincultive (French), Gemeiner Lein or Flachs (German), Alsi or Tisi (Hindi),
Masina (Bengali), Javas (Gujarati), Alashi (Konkan), Alashi-virai (Tamil),
Zaghu or Tukhmizaghira or Roghani zaghira (Persian), Bazarul-kattana
(Persian).
Biological Source
Linseed (flax seed) is the dried ripe seed of Linum usitatissimum L. (Family:
Linaceae). Seeds contain not less than 25% of fixed (drying) oil. The Latin
name, linum is derived from the Greek, limon while its common name, flax
is Middle English, originally from Old English, fleax and is related to the
German, flachs which means ‘to plait’ or ‘interweave’, in connection with the
fibres being spun into thread.
Linum usitatissimum
Plant with capsules
166 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Flax fruits
Seeds of flax
Seed—source of oil
Oil
Geographical Source
The plant is a native of Egypt extensively cultivated in India chiefly in
West Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. It is cultivated in South America,
India, USA, Russia, Argentina, Holland and Canada. It is cultivated chiefly
in the temperate regions of the eastern and western hemispheres. At
present, the major flax producing countries for fibre are the Soviet Union,
Poland and France.
Characters of the Seed
The seeds are ovate or ovate-lanceolate, compressed (flat). The seed is
obliquely pointed at one end and round at the other, 4–6 mm long and
2–2.5 mm broad. The testa is chestnut-brown, glossy and finely pitted with
a pale-yellow linear raphe along one edge. Internally, the seed coat is brown
and the endosperm is yellowish-green. The odour is slight and the taste is
mucilaginous and oily.
Collection and Preparation
The seeds are separated by thrashing, cleaned, crushed through oil seed
rolls, moistened and the crushed moist seeds are heated to 85–90°C in steam
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 167
jacketed troughs. When the seed’s tissues are sufficiently softened, the
material is pressed through heated hydraulic press at a pressure of 3300 to
5000 pounds per square inch (cold pressing). The oil thus expressed is
filtered and treated with alkali to remove free fatty acids. The oil is bleached
by using either Fuller’s earth or charcoal. The refined oil thus obtained is
chilled to separate any waxy material.
The manufacture of the linseed oil comprises the following steps: Heating
the crude linseed oil to an increased temperature lower than the boiling
point of water—adding a heated inorganic acid to the oil and mixing—
separation of the precipitated materials—adding a heated aqueous solution
of the alkali to the oil and mixing the oil—discharge of the soap
formed— and rinsing the oil with hot water until a clear rinsing water is
obtained.
Characters
Linseed oil is a clear to yellowish to dark-grey or yellowish-brown drying
oil with a characteristic odour and bland taste; much commercial oil has
marked odour and acrid taste. Pure fresh oil is colourless while the
commercial oil is dark yellow. On exposure to air, the oil dries up to a
transparent varnish chiefly of linoxyn.
Chemical Constituents
The fixed oil is a mixture of many triglycerides derived from fatty acids
and contains about 30–40% of linolein, 25% protein and 15% of mucilage
(6% in the testa) along with proteins, amygdalin, resin, wax, sugar and ash
(3 to 5%). The ash contains sulphates and chlorides of potassium, calcium
and magnesium. Linseed oil has a high iodine value as it contains
considerable quantities of the glycerides of unsaturated acids. The fatty
acids present include linolenic acid (51.9–55.2%), linoleic acid (14.2–17%),
oleic acid (18.5–22.6%) along with some saturated acids like myristic acid,
stearic acid (3.4–4.6%) and palmitic acid (about 7%).
Palmitic acid or hexadecanoic acid CH3(CH2)14COOH or (C16H32O2)
Myristic acid or tetradecanoic acid CH3(CH2)12COOH or (C14H28O2)