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268 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
The harvested leaves can be stored under shade for three days without
much adverse effect to the oil yield or quality of oil. They are then
chopped into smaller pieces before distillation. The volatile oil is
obtained by steam distillation of the fresh herb or dried leaves which
takes about 2–3 hours. The plant is pulled close to the root and the lower
bulb and the tough and outer leaves are snapped off just before use.
The dried slices are soaked in water for 2 hours before use. The oil is
popular as ‘Cochin oil’. India annually produces nearly 1000 MT per
year. In the international market, our country is facing a critical
competition from Guatemala.
Characters
Macroscopic Characters
This is a perennial thick grass which grows up to 2 m in height and 1.3 m
in width under ideal conditions. The strap-like, evergreen leaves with
sharp-edged blades are 1–2.5 cm in wide and about 1 m long with drooping
tips. These are located at the top of a solid root end. It propagates by the
division of the root end. The plant lasts 3–4 years and is harvested every
3–5 months. It tolerates many types of soils but a fertile loamy soil is
preferred.
Microscopic Characters
Anatomically, the characters of diagnostic importance are the micro-hairs
which are sparsely distributed in the adaxial epidermis and the prickle
hairs which occur in both the adaxial and abaxial epidermis. The papillae
are absent. The stomata are abundant on the adaxial epidermis and
sparse on the abaxial side. The mesophyll is distinct and the bulliform
cells can be seen only on the adaxial surface.
Properties
Lemongrass oil is a pale yellow or light brown or a tinge of red volatile oil.
It has fresh, strong, lemon-like pungent odour. The oil contains citral. It is
almost entirely soluble in 70% alcohol; the solubility gradually decreases
on storage. The oil is watery and thin in its viscosity.
Chemical Constituents
The fresh grass has 0.4% of volatile oil. The chief constituent of lemongrass
oil is a terpene aldehyde, citral (65–85%) which is a mixture of geraniol
(50%) and nerol. Other compounds are geranic acid, nerolic acid, myrcene
(12–25%), diterpenes, methylheptenone, citronellol, linalool, farnesol,
aldehydes, terpineol and other minor components. The nonvolatile
components include luteolin, homo-orientin, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid,
p-coumaric acid, fructose, sucrose, octacosanol, etc.
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 269
Geranic acid (C
10H16O2
)
Octacosanol (C28H58O)
p-coumaric acid (C
9H8O3
)
Caffeic acid (C9H8O4)
Homo-orientin or iso-orientin (C
Chlorogenic acid (C16H18O9)
21H20O11
)
270 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Luteolin (C15H10O6)
Farnesol (C15H26O)
Nerol (C10H18O)
Terpineol (C10H18O)
Methylheptenone (C
Citral (C10H16O)
8H14
O)
History of Lemongrass
Lemongrass has been used for centuries for aromatic oil useful in
perfumery, flavouring and herbal medicine. This has long been used in
traditional Indian medicine to treat fever and disease. In traditional Chinese
medicine, it is used to treat rheumatism, headache, stomach ache, cold,
abdominal pain and rheumatic pain. It is used to lower high blood pressure
and as an anti-inflammatory in Cuban medicine. It is used as a sedative
(tea called ‘abafado’), for treating the gastrointestinal problems and for fever
in Brazilian medicine. In South American folk medicine, an infusion
prepared by pouring boiling water on fresh or dried leaves is widely used
as an antispasmodic, antiemetic, analgesic and to treat the nervous and
gastrointestinal disorders as well as fever.
Medicinal Uses
The oil is a stimulant, diaphoretic, antispasmodic and carminative. The
infusion of the leaf is an excellent stomachic in children. Along with ginger,
suar and cinnamon, it is given in fevers as a diaphoretic, and with black
pepper, it is useful in irregular menstruation and congestive and neuralgic
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 271
dysmenorrhoea and dropsy due to chronic malaria. It also acts as a tonic
to the mucous membrane of the intestine and thus used in vomiting and
diarrhoea. The infusion of the leaves mixed with pudina, black pepper,
dried ginger and suage candy is useful in relieving colic, flatulence, fevers
and catarrh. Lemon grass oil is analgesic, antimicrobial, antiseptic,
astringent, bactericidal, carminative, deodorant, insecticidal, sedative and
a nervine tonic. The volatile oil is useful in spasmodic affections of the
bowels, gastric irritability and cholera. The oil mixed with an equal quantity
of coconut oil is a good liniment for lumbago, chronic rheumatism,
neuralgia, sprains, etc. It is also used against ringworm. The oil has
antifungal properties. The modern research indicates that the grass induces
programmed cell death in cells of cancer due to citral. It is used in low
dilution in massages and as a mild depressant. It helps in the detoxification
of the organs like pancreas, kidney, bladder and liver, helps cutting down
the cholesterol, uric acid and toxins, helps in the stimulation of digestion,
circulation, and helps in the treatment of gastroenteritis, indigestion and
minimising the acne and pimples on the face. Lemongrass is to be avoided
in individuals with known allergy because its oil may cause skin
reactions.
Culinary Uses
In kitchen, the grass is widely used in the preparation of beverages, soups,
teas, and other dishes. It mixes well with coconut milk, chicken, seafood,
pickles, etc. The popular recipes of Thailand and Sri Lanka are represented
by Taro, roast Kabocha soup, Thai coconut soup, Mussels broth, Jasmine tea
soufflé, Cornmeal crusted skate, on-the-half-shell and Skewered shrimp.
The grass is widely used in Asian cuisine either fresh or dried and powdered
in the preparation of tea, soup or curries in addition to fish and seafood.
This is widely used in savoury dishes and meat, seafood and vegetable
curries in Indonesian, Malaysian, Sri Lankan, Vietnamese and Indian
cooking. The stem is used in the preparation of tea and in pickles.
Other Uses
Large quantities of lemon-grass oil are used for the extraction of citral
from which α-ionine is prepared for the synthesis of vitamin A. The oil has
other uses such as a bactericide and an insect repellent against fleas, lice,
ticks and mosquitoes. The oil is used as a pesticide and a preservative on
the ancient palm-leaf scripts which maintains the natural fluidity of the
leaf and keeps the manuscripts dry as such the text is not lost or decayed
due to its hydrophobic nature. It is widely used in the production of
perfumes, soaps, deodorants, skin care products, fragrances, candles and
for aroma therapy. The oil is used in the form of a spray to prevent dogs
from excessive barking. This is one of the most important essential oils
because citral is the starting material for the production of many of the
272 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
man-made aromatics at present. As the oils add shine and lustre to dull
hair, the oil is used in hair care formulations.
CARAWAY
Synonyms
Carum, Caraway seed, Fructus Carvi, Wild cumin, Meridian fennel, Meadow
cumin, Persian cumin (English), Kummel (German), Cumin des pres, Carvi,
Lus dearg (French), Karo, Karvi (Greek), Careum, Carvum (Latin), Tmin
(Russian), Alcaravia (Portuguese), Karavi (Sanskrit), Karaway, Karawiya
(Arabic), Ziya (Burmese), Geluzi (Chinese), Shia jeera, Vilayati jira (Hindi),
Shah Jeeru (Gujarati), Sajiragam, Sajirakam (Malayalam), Vamu (Telugu).
Biological Source
Caraway consists of the dried, ripe fruits of Carum carvi L. (Family:
Apiaceae). The name Carum is derived from the Latin, cuminum and the
Greek, karon adapted into Latin as carum, meaning caraway. The Sanskrit
Carum carvi
Inflorescence
Young fruitsYoung inflorescence
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 273
Ripe fruits Dry fr uits
Fruits-closeup
Caraway oil
word, karavi may sometimes be translated as caraway. The term, caraway in
English dates back to at least 1440 and is believed to be of Arabic origin, al-
karawya from the Latin, carum.
Geographical Source
The habitat of the plant is Asia and Europe. The plant is native to Western
Asia, Europe and Northern Africa but is naturalised in USA and Canada.
It is indigenous to Europe, Siberia, Turkey, Persia, India and Northern
Africa. The plant seems to occur wild and has long been cultivated in
Central and Northern Europe like The Netherlands, Finland, Denmark,
Germany, Holland, Russia, Finland, Poland, Moracco, Spain, Norway,
Hungary and England and to a lesser extent in the northern parts of USA.
The plant is grown on a commercial scale in Germany, Austria, France and
parts of Spain.
274 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Collection and Preparation
The plants are mowed when the oldest fruits are ripe. After threshing and
mechanical cleaning, the fruits are re-dried in the field until they have lost
most of their moisture to 10–12% moisture. The fruits are thrashed, dried,
cleaned, packed and stored in bags. The drug should be stored in containers
which are tightly closed in dry, cool and dark place in order to retain the
aroma as long as possible. The shade dried seed contains more oil content
than the sun dried seed. The fresh seed should be taken to an oil extraction
unit for recovery of the essential oil content. The oil is extracted by steam
distillation from the dried ripe seeds.
Characters
Macroscopic Characters
The biennial plant appears like a carrot plant and possesses finely
divided feathery leaves on the stem 50–60 cm high. The peduncle is 40–
60 cm in length with white to pink flowers in umbels. The drug consists
of mericarps separated from the pedicels. The mericarps are slightly
curved and shaped like a crescent, brown, glabrous, 3–7 mm long, 1.5–
2 mm broad, tapered at both ends, crowned with a stylopod. The fruit
has the typical structure with six vittae and five primary ribs in each
mericarp. There is a small schizogenous secretory canal in each rib just
above the vascular bundle. The large endosperm is oily with a small
embryo in its upper end. The odour and taste of the crushed fruits is
agreeable and aromatic with a pungent anise-like flavour due to its oils,
carvone and limonene. The oil has a sweet, spicy herbal odour and a
slight peppery smell. It is soluble in alcohol and insoluble in water. It
has a specific gravity of 0.90–0.91, a refractive index of 1.4790–1.4952, a
boiling point of 193–231°C and a flash point of 134°F. It has a shelf-life
of 24 months or more and is stored in cool dry place in tightly sealed
containers protected from heat and light. It is very toxic to aquatic
organisms.
Microscopic Characters
The outer epidermis of the pericarp is glabrous and has striated cuticle.
The cells are tangentially elongated with thick outer walls. The
mesocarp consists of more or less collapsed parenchyma and lacks
the reticulated cells. The elliptical brown vittae lined by small epithelial
secretory cells bear the oil. The inner endocarp consists of a single
layer of elongated cells, arranged more or less parallel to one another.
There is a layer of collapsed brown cells called the spermoderm. The
endosperm consists of moderately thick-walled parenchyma
containing the droplets of fixed oil and aleurone grains with rosette
aggregates of calcium oxalate.
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 275
Chemical Constituents
Caraway yields 3–7% of volatile oil by distillation of the home-grown fruits,
preferably from Dutch, Norwegian and Russian varieties. The principal
constituents of the oil are carvol (oxygenated oil), carvone, a hydrocarbon
(50–85%) and limonene (20–30%). They also contain carveol, dihydrocarveol, alpha and beta-pinene, furfurol, sabinene and perillyl alcohol in
addition to proteins (20%) and fixed oil in the endosperm and yield about
6% of ash.
Perillyl alcohol (C
Furfurol (C5H4O2) Beta-Pinene (C10H16)
Alpha-Pinene (C10H16)
Carveol (C10H16O)
10H16
O)
Sabinene (C10H16)
Dihydrocarveol (C10H18O)
Carvone (C10H14O)
History of Caraway
The use of caraway dates back to the Stone Age. The archaeologists
discovered the seeds among the refuse areas of prehistoric communities
in Southern Europe and this indicates that the plant was a part of the daily
life of early man. The roots of caraway have been thought to have formed
the ‘Chara’ of Julius Caesar, consumed by the soldiers of Valerius when
276 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
mixed with milk and made into bread. It was well known in classic days
and it is believed that the use of caraway originated with the ancient Arabs
who called it as ‘Karawaya’. Pliny believed that the name Carvi was derived
from Caria, in Asia Minor where the plant was found originally. It was
thought that Dioscorides (40–90), the ancient Greek Physician and a
pharmacologist and a botanist, during the time of Nero, advised pale-faced
girls to take the oil of caraway. Caraway was very popular in the Middle
Ages and in Shakespeare’s time. During Elizabethan times, it was used as
a condiment, and is also mentioned in Henry IV, Part II of Shakespeare. In
Germany, the peasants use this to flavour their cheese, cabbage, soups and
bread while in Norway and Sweden, caraway bread is largely eaten. The
Russians and the Germans prepare ‘Kummel’, a liquor and cordial. In the
olden days, it was used as a gift of retention in case of theft, formed an
ingredient of love potions as a useful aid to prevent fickleness and was
also fed to chicken and pigeons to prevent them from wandering off. Earlier,
the fruit and the oil are stimulant and carminative, used for dyspepsia and
symptoms that followed hysteria. In German folklore, it was learnt that
the parents placed caraway seeds in a dish underneath their children’s
beds to be protected from witches.
Medicinal Uses
The tea from the seeds is a remedy for colic, loss of appetite, disorders of
the digestive system and to expel the worms. The volatile oil obtained
from the fruits is a stimulant, condiment and carminative. Caraway is an
antiseptic, antispasmodic, antihistaminic, astringent, cardiac, disinfectant,
diuretic, carminative, digestive, emmenagogue, galactogogue, expectorant,
stomachic, antiparasitic and vermifuge. It has been used to stimulate the
production of milk in nursing mothers, to relieve period pains in women
and to treat colic in infants. The oil is used to calm the nerves and soothe
mental fatigue. It is used in colic, flatulence and gastric spasm. It helps to
clear bronchitis, bronchial asthma and cough as well as sore throat and
laryngitis. It is an effective tissue regenerator, reduces boils, cleans infected
wounds, relieves itching skin and clears acne and scalp problems.
Culinary Uses
The fruits are used as a spice in rye bread. It is also used in liquors and
curries with particular reference to the European cuisine. It is also used to
flavour cheese. The oil is used to flavour soaps, lotions and perfumes. The
root is cooked as a vegetable. The exhausted seed is used as a cattle feed.
Adulteration
The drug is adulterated with ergotized caraway, Mogador Caraway from
Moracco and Cumin, the fruit of Cuminum cyminum (indigenous to Northwest Africa).
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 277
CUMIN
Synonyms
Cumin fruit, Fructus Cumini, Green cumin, White cumin, Cummin, Cumin
seed (English), Al-kamuwn (Arabic), Anisacre or Cumin officinale (French),
Venedischer kummel or Mutterkummel or Kreuzkummel (German),
Kyminon (Greek), Latin (Cuminum), Cumino bianco (Italian), Umazeri
(Japanese), Kimyon (Turkish), Kominho (Portuguese), Duru (Sinhalese),
Djinten (Dutch), Ziran (Chinese), Kemun (Ethiopian), Kamoun (Arabic),
Jeeraka, Jirana, Hrasvanga, Kunchika, Sugandhan, Udgaarshodan, Ajmoda,
Ajaji, Jita (Sanskrit), Safed Jeera or Jeera (Hindi and Bengali), Jeera or Jira
(Nepalese, Punjabi and Assamese), Zeera (Persian), Ziya (Burmese), Safed
Jiru or Jiru (Gujarati), Jeelakarra or Jilakara (Telugu), Jeeragam or Jeerakam
or Nallajirakam (Malayalam), Jeeragam or Seeragam (Tamil), Jeerige or
Jirige (Kannada), Jeera (Konkani and Maharashtrian), Zira (Urdu).
Biological Source
Cumin consists of the dried ripe fruits and seeds of Cuminum cyminum L.
(= Cuminum odorum Sahib. C. officinale: Family: Apiaceae). The English
word, cumin is derived from the French word, cumin, borrowed from the
Cuminum cyminum
Cumin fruits Closeup
Inflorescence