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288 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Collection and Preparation
Clove grows well in rich, loamy soil of humid tropics. The unopened flower
buds are of a pale colour at first, later they become green and finally into a
bright red and are harvested when they begin to turn pink. At this time,
they are less than 1.5–2 cm long and consist of a long calyx ending in four
spreading sepals, four unopened petals and form a small ball in the centre.
The opened flowers are not valued as a spice. Harvesting should be done
using step ladders or hand-picked without damaging the branches, as it
adversely affects the succeeding growth. It is a common practice among
the growers not to leave the trees to bear fruits (mother clove), as it has an
adverse effect on subsequent growth. The harvested flower buds are
separated from the cluster by hand and spread in the drying yard for drying
in the sun. Sometimes, they are artificially dried and garbled. The correct
stage of drying is when the stem of the bud becomes dark brown and the
rest of the bud lighter brown. Well-dried cloves are only one-third the
weight of the original and about 11,000–15,000 dried cloves weigh one
kilogram. The berry when it is nearly ripe is collected and sold as ‘Mother
of Cloves’. The clove oil is extracted by steam distillation.
Characters
Macroscopic Characters
The dried flower buds are about 10–17.5 mm length with a crown and a
stalk. The crown or the head has four projecting teeth of calyx and a
membranous corolla, which enclose the inflexed stamens. The stalk is the
hypanthium. The cloves are purplish-crimson (fresh) or dark brown,
reddish-brown or brownish-black in colour. They are strongly aromatic in
odour, intensively fragrant and fiery burning taste.
Microscopic Characters
The powder contains part of hypanthium, sepals, petals and stamens. The
epidermis is cutinized with anomocytic stomata. Masses of small, biconvex,
triangular, smooth walled, immature pollen can be seen. The
parenchymatous columellar cells contain the large oil reservoirs and crystals
of calcium oxalate in clusters. The middle wall layers of the anther are
fibrous and lignified which appear like beads in the surface view. Bits of
aerenchyma are present outside the central columella. Cloves are heavier
than water.
Chemical Constituents
The dried flower buds consist of 14–21% of a heavy volatile oil, 6% of
camphor resin, in addition to small amounts of tannin (10–13%), woody
fibres, gum, etc. The volatile oil (Oleum caryophylli) consists of 50–85% of
eugenol (85–92% a potent antiseptic and anaesthetic), 3% of acetyl eugenol
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 289
and such sesquiterpenes as β-caryophyllene, eugenin, vanillin, crategolic
acid, gallotannic acid, kaempferol, rhamnetin, eugenitin, oleanilic acid,
stigmasterol, campestrol, furfural, methyl-amyl-ketone, capsaicin, etc. The
caryophyllin occurs as silky stellate needles. The volatile oil is colourless
to pale yellow with a medium to watery viscosity and becomes visible
when clove is pressed strongly between the thumb and finger.
Vanillin (C8H8O3)
Kaempferol (C15H10O6)
Crategolic acid or Maslinic acid (C30H48O4)
Rhamnetin (C16H12O7)
Capsaicin (C18H27NO3)
Furfural (C5H4O2)
Methyl-amyl-ketone (C7H14O)
Eugenitin (C12H12O4)
290 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Gallo-tannic acid (C76H52O46)
History of Cloves
Historically cloves were cultivated in the Spice (Molucca or Malaku) islands
and the islands of Ternate, Tidore, Bacan and the west coast of Halmahera.
They found their way to the Middle East and Europe before the 1st century
AD. Cloves appear to have been cultivated in China as early as 266 BC.
Archaeologists could unearth a ceramic vessel in Syria containing cloves
dating back to 1721 BC. Cloves were highly prized during Roman times
according to Pliny, the Elder. In the Middle Ages, Arabs traded the cloves
in the Indian Ocean trade until late 15th century to be taken over by the
Portuguese who brought large quantities to Europe from Molucca islands
being the one of the most valuable spices. This trade later in the 17th century
became dominated by the Dutch. In 1770, clove tree was introduced into
Mauritius and this followed their cultivation in Guiana, Brazil, West Indies
and Zanzibar. All ancient Sanskrit scriptures of India contained the
description of cloves. It has been used as a masticatory after meals in all
the rituals and had a wide popularity as a condiment as well as a therapeutic
agent since the days of Ramayana. Charaka has mentioned it as agnimandya
nasaka as it alleviates anorexia. Charaka also cited it as one of the ingredients
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 291
of tambula. It is widely used as an adjunct in the preparation of many
confections in Ayurveda. Susruta in his Susruta Samhita, Sutra, A-16, has
mentioned its use after food to alleviate kapha and thirst. The courtiers of
Han dynasty (207 BC–220 AD) in China used cloves to sweeten their breath
before talking to their emperor. The Chinese physicians used it traditionally
to treat indigestion, diarrhoea, hernia, ringworm, athlete’s foot and other
fungal infections. Traditional Ayurvedic physicians used it to treat
respiratory and digestive disorders. It reached Europe around 4th century
AD and the medieval herbalists used it as an antigout mixture. It was also
used to treat infertility, warts, worms, wounds and toothache in Europe.
The Eclectic physicians of Early America used it to treat digestive disorders
and they were the first to extract clove oil from the buds and used it to
relieve toothache.
Medicinal Uses
Cloves are used in Ayurvedic medicine, Chinese medicine, and Western
herbalism and dentistry in which the essential oil is used as an anodyne in
dental emergencies. Cloves are carminative and increase hydrochloric acid
in the stomach and improve peristalsis. Cloves are anthelmintic. In
toothache, the use of cloves decreases the pain and infection in the teeth
and cavities in decayed teeth, as it is antiseptic. In Chinese medicine, cloves
are acrid, warm and aromatic, used for hiccoughs and for fortifying the
kidney. It is also used in the formulations for impotency and to clear the
vaginal discharge, for morning sickness, for vomiting and diarrhoea due
to coldness (hypochlorhydria) of spleen and stomach. The oil is used in
skin afflictions like acne, pimples, severe burns, irritation of skin, etc. In
Tibetan medicine, the oil is used topically for hypotonic muscles and for
multiple sclerosis. The cloves are aromatic, stimulant, stomachic, antiseptic,
antispasmodic, rubifacient, carminative and local anaesthetic. They are used
in toothaches, dyspepsia and gastric irregularity and also to increase the
flow of saliva. When taken internally, they increase circulation, promote
the digestion of fatty food, promote nutrition and relieve the gastric and
intestinal pains and spasms. They are used to correct gripping by
purgatives, relieve flatulence and increase the flow of saliva. They also
stimulate the skin, salivary glands, kidneys, liver and bronchial mucous
membranes. The excess oil is excreted in breath, sweat, bile, milk and urine.
The clove oil is externally applied in rheumatic pains, sciatica, lumbago,
headaches, toothaches, etc. The juice relieves the sore throat and strengthens
the gums. Popularly, the paste is applied to the forehead and to the nose
bridge to relieve headache and coryza. The oil can be used for acne, bruises,
burns and cuts and it is effective against vomiting, diarrhoea, flatulence
and spasms. The oil relieves many respiratory problems like bronchitis,
asthma and tuberculosis. Since ages, it is used as a masticatory to remove
bad breath and as a freshener of mouth and throat. The application of cloves
292 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
as a paste on the forehead relieves headaches, chewing removes the
toothaches, and the oil as a massage alleviates pain in rheumatic joints,
backache and sciatica. Cloves ameliorate hyperacidity, excessive thirst,
flatulence and have a mild anticolic and antidiarrhoeal activity. It acts as a
blood purifier and a stimulant to heart and also works as lactodepurant
and galactogogue. It is a constituent of aphrodisiac preparations to curb
the premature ejaculation. As an ophthalmic topical preparation (anjana
or katuka) it is beneficial in epilepsy and hysteria to regain consciousness.
It helps relieve nausea, control vomiting and prevent intestinal worms and
parasites. The powder is nontoxic to healthy, nonpregnant, non-nursing
adults. Contraindications have not yet been identified. The pregnant and
lactating mothers should avoid the use of cloves.
Culinary Uses
Cloves have been historically used in both North Indian and South Indian
cuisine, as an ingredient of garam masala and biryani. In Gujarat, the dried
cloves are used in the preparation of Indian masala chai. These are called
clavos de olor in Mexican cuisine and used along with cinnamon and cumin.
Cloves are often used to season pho broth in Vietnam. In the Netherlands,
cloves are used in cheeses and are components of speculaas and stews like
hachee of the Dutch. Cloves are employed in Chinese cuisine, Sri Lankan
cuisine and Moghul cuisine as well as those of Middle East, Arab countries,
Northern Africa and the greater part of Asia for meat dishes. The cloves
are also used as condiment in food. Cloves are also used in baked apples,
apple pie, desserts and cakes.
Other Uses
Cloves are very rarely used in Moluccas cuisine though Indonesians use
up nearly 50% of the world’s production. They use cloves for smoking and
flavoured cigarettes called kretek are popular and every male enjoys them.
They are also used in the production of many perfumes. In some European
countries, these are used to make pomanders to hang around the house
during Christmas time. The oil is insect repellant. The oil of clove is rich in
phenols (80–90%) and sesquiterpenes and small amounts of ketones
and alcohol and as such the strong oils are used in the manufacture of
vanillin, while mild ones are used in pharmacy. Clove is an important
incense in Chinese and Japanese culture. The essential oil is used in aroma
therapy.
Adulterants
The cloves are adulterated with over ripe fruits of clove (Mother of Clove),
fully opened flowers of cloves and exhausted cloves which are inferior in
quality. The powdered cloves are adulterated with stalks of the cloves,
coconut shells, olive pits and cereal flours.
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 293
FENNEL
Synonyms
Foeniculum, Fennel fruit, Fennel seed, Fructus foeniculum, Sweet cumin,
Biscuit root, Indian Sweet Fennel (English), Fenchelsamen or Fenchel
(German), Fenouli (French), Finocchio selvaggio (Italian), Funcho
(Portuguese), Hinojo (Spanish), Finokio or Maratho (Greek), Finiculum or
Foeniculum (Latin), Fennikel (Danish), Xiao hui xiang (Chinese), Maduru
or Mahaduru (Sinhalese), Fenneru (Japanese), Madhurika or Mathica
(Sanskrit), Badi saunp (Maharashtrian), Shoap (Marathi), Mouri or Mauri
(Bengali), Sopu or Sompu or Pedda jilakarra (Telugu), Shombu or Sombu
or Perunjiragam or Peruncheeragam (Tamil), Perujirakam or
Perumjeerakam (Malayalam), Variyali (Gujarati), Badesopu or Dodde jirige
(Kannada), Badi Saunf or Moti saunf or Bari saunf (Hindi), Mauti saunf
(Urdu), Samong-saba (Burmese), Saunph (Punjabi).
Biological Source
Fennel consists of the dried ripe fruits of cultivated varieties of Foeniculum
vulgare (Gaert.) Mill. (=Anethum foeniculum: Family: Apiaceae), treated as
the sole species in the genus. The word, fennel developed from Middle
Fennel Habitat
Flowers in umbels Closeup
294 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Dried fruits
Ripe fruits
Powder
Fennel oil
English word, fenel or fenyl which was derived from Old English, fenol or
finol, in turn from the Latin, feniculum or foeniculum, the diminutive of fenum
or foenum, meaning ‘small hay’ and vulgare means ‘common’.
Geographical Source
The plant is indigenous to Mediterranean and the habitat of the plant is
Southern Europe and Asia Minor. It is widely naturalised in Northern
Europe, USA, Southern Canada and Australia, and cultivated on a large
scale in many parts of Europe, India, China, Germany, Persia, Spain, Italy,
Russia, France, Romania, Japan and Egypt.
Collection and Preparation
Fennel requires cool and dry climate for its cultivation. The crop matures
in 170–180 days. All the umbels do not mature at the same time, so plucking
of umbels is done when seeds are fully developed but still green. Harvesting
is completed by plucking twice or thrice at 10 day intervals. After ripening,
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 295
the umbels are dried in sun for 1–2 days and then in shade for 8–10 days
and the fruits are separated by thrashing. The German large varitey which
is green is preferred most. Indian, French and Italian fennels are yellow in
colour.
Characters
Macroscopic Characters
Fennel is a biennial herb that grows to a height of 2.5 m with hollow stems.
The leaves are up to 40 cm long, finely dissected with final thread like
segments. The yellow flowers are produced in compound umbels. The drug
consists of partly of whole cremocarps and partly of separated mericarps.
Some of the cremocarps have pedicel attached to them. The fruits are
glabrous at the top of which is a stylopod. The mericarps are 5–10 cm long
and 2–4 mm broad. They are yellowish-green to grayish-brown, straight,
elliptic or slightly curved with 5 ridges. The drug has an aromatic odour
and strongly aromatic taste.
Microscopic Characters
The epicarp consists of outer epidermis, the cells of which are tabular and
tangentially elongated. The mesocarp contains five bicollateral vascular
bundles below each of the primary ridge. Lignified reticulate parenchyma
is present above and below the vascular bundles. Four vittae are present
on the dorsal surface and two vittae on the commissural (ventral surface).
Endosperm consists of wide polyhedral thick-walled cells which contain
fixed oil and aleurone grains with globoid and minute microcrystals of
calcium oxalate.
Chemical Constituents
The flavour comes from anethole and the taste and aroma is similar to
anise but not as strong. The fruits contain 3–6% volatile oil (Oleum foeniculi).
The principal constituents of the oil are anethole (phenolic ether transanethol or anise camphor of about 50–80%) and the ketone fenchone
(12–22%) in addition to limonene (5%), estragole (methyl chavicol), safrole,
alpha-pinene (0.5%), camphene, beta-pinene, germacrene-D, beta-myrcene
and p-cymene as well as anisaldehyde and calcium oxalate.
Anethole (C10H12O)
Fenchone (C10H16O)
296 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Estragole (Methyl chavicol C10H12O)
Camphene (C10H16)
Safrole (C10H10O2)
Germacrene-D
History of Fennel
In Greek mythology, Prometheus used the stalk of a fennel plant to steal
fire from the gods. One report says that fennel has bestowed immortality
in the Greek legend of Prometheus. Hippocrates (3rd century BC)
mentioned it as a diuretic and emmenagogue and prescribed fennel
for the treatment of colic in infants and also to sharpen the eyesight.
Dioscorides (7th century) recommended it to nursing mothers to boost
milk production and also referred to it as a suppressant of appetite. Pliny,
Roman naturalist, described that fennel can be used for about 22 remedies
including problems of the eye, blindness and jaundice and also observed
that snakes eat it when they cast their old skins and also sharpen their eyesight with the juice by rubbing against the plant. The effect on improving
the eyesight has been also upheld by many older herbalists. Ancient
Romans cultivated fennel for its aromatic fruits and edible, succulent stems.
Ancient Romans regarded the plant as the herb which can improve the
sight and the extract of the roots was often used to clear the cloudy eyes.
The anecdotes in history indicate that fennel is a galactogogue which
improves the supply of milk in a breastfeeding mother. During the middle
ages, it was grown in monasteries. During the middle ages, the plant was
hung over the doors to ward off the evil spirits. Fennel has also been
mentioned in Anglo-Saxon cookery and medical recipes prior to the
Norman conquest and also in Arabic and Persian materia medica. Fennel
water and the seed are mentioned in ancient record of Spanish agriculture
dating back to 961 AD. Fennel has been mentioned in Eber’s papyrus (1600
BC) and has been grown for 1000s of years in China (490 BC) as a culinary
herb.
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Volatile Oils 297
Medicinal Uses
Fennel and its volatile oil are used as an aromatic, stimulant, diuretic,
emmenagogue, stomachic, pectoral, diaphoretic and carminative. It is also
an expectorant and a galactogogue. It is a proven remedy for respiratory
congestion and a common addition to baby formulations to aid in
digestion. Fennel is also useful in irritable bowel syndrome. Volatile oil
has a potent hepatoprotective action against carbontetrachloride induced
hepatic damage in rats (Ozbek et al., 2003). The root is purgative. The
leaves are diuretic and increase the secretion of urine and sweat. The
fruit is used as a condiment and an adjunct. The fruit juice is used to
improve the eye- sight. Aqua foeniculi (Fennel water) is used as domestic
gripe water to ease flatulence in infants and to treat babies with colic and
painful teething. In adults, tea made of fennel seeds relaxes the intestines
and reduces bloating. A hot fruit infusion is good for amenorrhoea and
in cases of suppressed lacteal secretion. The oil is useful in flatulence and
griping of purgatives. The seed or the fruit in the form of a paste is used
as a cooling drink in fever and scalding of urine. Fennel is an effective
diuretic and is a potent drug of hypertension. Recent studies indicated
that fennel possesses diuretic, choleretic, analgesic, antipyretic and
antimicrobial properties. Traditionally, it is a proven eyewash, remedy
for gas, acidity, gout, cramps, spasms, etc. The ground seeds made into
tea are good for snake bite, insect bites and food poisoning. It has been
proven to be useful for obesity, promote the flow of urine, promote
menstruation, facilitate birth, increase libido, relieve the pains of
menopause in older women and estrogenic. The oil used as topical
application over painful joints reduces the pain and also used as a gargle
for hoarseness and sore throat. Adverse effects have not been reported.
The seeds possess laxative, aphrodisiac, anthelmintic, alexiteric properties
and are used in eye diseases, fever, thirst, wounds, dysentery, leprosy,
etc. The fruit is used for venereal diseases and for the regulation of the
periods. Leaves are diuretic and roots are purgative.
Culinary Uses
Fennel is used as a flavouring agent in pork, fish, sauces, salads, stuffings,
butters and dressings. The seed is used as spice, in breads. It is also used as
a flavouring agent and a condiment. The fruits are used for flavouring
soups, meat dishes, sauces, confectioneries and pickles.
Other Uses
It is a food plant to the larvae of many Lepidopteran insects like Mouse
Moth and Anise Swallowtail. Fennel is also used for cattle and the powder
drives away fleas from kennels and stables. Fennel can also be used as a
decorative border in the gardens.