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178 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
oxidant vitamin E. The butter is often substituted for cocoa butter because
of its more uniform triglyceride composition. Its high fatty acid content
improves the stability of the emulsion and offers thickness without
stiffness.
Raw kokum Kokum butter
Hydroxy-capric acid (C10H20O3)
History of Garcinia
The place of origin is unknown but is believed to be the Sunda Islands and
the Moluccas Islands, and it can be found throughout South East Asia.
According to Corner, the tree was first domesticated in Thailand or Burma
(Myanmar). According to Alphonse De Candolle, the mangosteen species
is certainly wild in the forests of the Sunda Islands and of the Malay
peninsula. The plant is cultivated in Thailand, Kampuchea, Southern
Vietnam and Burma, and throughout Malaya and Singapore. It was
introduced into Ceylon (Sri Lanka) in 1800 and into India in 1881. In India,
it is confined to four areas namely, the Nilgiri hills, the Tinnevelly district
of Southern Madras (Tamil Nadu), the Kanya Kumari district at the
southernmost tip of the Madras Peninsula (Tamil Nadu) and in Kerala
state in South Western India. The fruit has been mentioned in traditional
Chinese medicine dating back to 1368–1644 AD during the reign of the
Ming dynasty. The rind has been used to cure infections by the South East
Asian populations for centuries and the poultice was used to treat the skin
problems and the extract of the white pulp was used to bring down the
fever. The best bibliography of the historical references to Garcinia was
assembled by Cora L. Feldkamp (1946) and the compilation includes
‘references on all aspects of the mangosteen—botany, culture, diseases and
pests, varieties, composition, nutritional value, cookery, toxic effects, uses
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 179
and economics’. The records indicate that the first introduction of the
mangosteen in the UK during the 18th and 19th century goes back to
Anton Pantaleon Hove (Hoveau). He procured the plants along with some
better strains of cotton seeds from Gujarat, India, and sent it to Plymouth,
England (1789) which was moved to Kew. This was the introduction of
mangosteen into Western Hemisphere. The other reference was an 18th
century publication, ‘a description of the mangostan (Molucca Islands)
and the bread fruit’ by John Ellis (1775) which contains a sketch of the
bread fruit and the mangosteen. Ellis made a reference to Laurent Garcin,
a French naturalist who travelled in India and collected and described
mangosteen in particular and Linnaeus honoured his work and named
mangosteen after him as Garcinia. David G. Fairchild (1903) referred
mangosteen fruit, Garcinia mangostana, as the ‘queen of tropical fruits’ and
also ‘the finest fruit in the world’. Mangosteen is the national fruit of
Thailand.
Medicinal Uses
The seeds yield a concrete oil known as kokum oil or kokum butter. The
butter is a specific remedy in dysentery and mucous diarrhoea. It is also
used in phthisis and scorbutic diseases. It is often recommended as a
substitute for cod liver oil and is a good substitute for cocoa butter. It is
also eaten by poor people as a ghee substitute. Kokum butter is nutritive,
demulcent, astringent and emollient. It contains compounds that help in
the regeneration and repair of skin cells and as such it is used in skin lotions,
creams, body butters, soaps, cosmetics and toiletry. It is used as a local
external application to ulceration, fissures of lips, hands and also wounds
and sores accompanied with inflammation. It is used in the preparation of
ointments and suppositories. It is also a good moisturiser for skin in
summer. The butter is well known to counteract the heat in summer
particularly Gujarat and Maharashtra where it is used as a sherbat. It has
the same quality of tamarind and enhances the dishes made of potatoes,
okra (Lady’s finger) and lentils. It is used as edible oil in fish curries, in
pickles and chutneys. The fruit extract is traditionally used to relieve gastric
problems like acidity, flatulence, constipation and indigestion. Its juice acts
as a stimulant for appetite and has also anthelmintic properties. The
infusion is used in ayurvedic medicine to treat piles, dysentery and
infections. The fruit contains rich amounts of antioxidants which promote
cell repair. The butter is known to strengthen the cardiovascular system
and stabilise the liver function. The hydroxy citric acid in the fruit fights
cholesterol and curbs lipogenesis. The butter can also be used as edible oil.
Xanthone found in the pericarp of the fruit has about 28 health benefits
therapeutically; it is also anti-neuralgic, helpful for the diseases of the gums
and also in glaucoma. One of the most popular preparations of Malabar
Tamarind is a Goan speciality, called solkadi, in which coconut milk and
180 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
kokum are used. It can be had as a drink after meals to aid digestion or
along with rice and vegetables.
Other Uses
The seed contains 23–26% oil, which is solid at room temperature. It is
used in the preparation of chocolate and sugar confectionery. The tree is
ornamental with a dense canopy of green leaves and red-tinged, tender,
young leaves.
BEE’S WAX
Synonyms
Yellow bee’s wax, Yellow wax (English), Gelbes Wachs (German), Cire
jaune, Cire d’abeilles (French), Cera flava, Encerar (Spanish), Shamah al
nahl, Shama (Arabic), Siktha or Madhujama (Sanskrit), Mom (Persian and
Hindi), Mina (Gujarati), Mum or Myana (Maharashtrian), Maena (Kannada
and Konkani), Taenmazhaeu or Mellugu (Tamil and Malayalam), Mynum
(Telugu), Miettie (Sinhalese), H’pa-noung (Burmese), Lilin (Malaysian),
Bazi (Chinese), Bijenwas (Dutch), Cera d’api (Italian), Wosk (Polish), Cera
de abelha (Portuguese), Vosk bock (Russian), Bal mumu, Bulmumu
(Turkish).
Synonyms for Honeybee
Hive bee (English), Madhumakkhi (Hindi), Teneteega (Telugu),
Bhramaramu (Sanskrit), Abelha de mel, Abelha comum (Portuguese),
Honungsbi (Swedish), Miel de abejas, Abeja melífera (Spanish), Honningbie
(Norwegian), Azhilchin zºgiy (Mongolian), Miele d’api (Italian), Melissa i
imeri, Melissa i koini, Melissa i meliforos (Greek), Honigbiene, Die
Honigbiene (German), Abeille domestique, Abeille commune (French),
Honigbij, Honingbij (Dutch).
Biological Source
Bees wax is a natural wax produced in the beehive of honeybees and is obtained
by melting and purifying the honeycomb of the genus Apis, Apis mellifera
L. and other bees. The female worker bees have 8 wax-producing mirror
glands on the inner sides of the sternites (the ventral shields of the body
segments) on 4 to 7 abdominal segments. The size of these glands depends
on the age of the worker bee. The bees use the wax to build the honeycomb in which the young are raised and honey and the pollen are stored.
Geographical Source
West Indies, California, Chile, Africa, Madagascar and India produce bee’s
wax.
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 181
Collection and Preparation
Wax is secreted by worker bees in cells on the ventral surface of the last
four segments of their abdomen. The wax passes out through pores in the
chitinous plates of the sternum and is used, particularly by young workers,
to form the comb.
Yellow beeswax is prepared, after removal of the honey, by melting the
comb under water (residual honey dissolving in the water and solid impurities
sinking), straining, and allowing the wax to solidify in suitable moulds.
White beeswax is prepared from the above by treatment with charcoal,
potassium permanganate, chromic acid, chlorine, etc. or by the slow
bleaching action of light, air and moisture. In the latter method, the melted
wax is allowed to fall on a revolving cylinder which is kept moist. Ribbonlike strips of wax are thus formed which are exposed on cloth to the action
of light and air, being moistened and turned at intervals until the outer
surface is bleached. The whole process is repeated at least once, and the
wax is finally cast into circular cakes.
Yellow beeswax from honeycomb
Honeycomb—the source
Natural beeswax
182 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Pure raw wax Commercial wax
Characters
Beeswax [CH
(CH2)24CO2 – (CH2)29CH3] is a tough, solid, non-crystalline
3
material varying in colour from yellow to brownish-yellow or greyishbrown. It occurs as molded cakes, flakes or scales, brittle when cold and
exhibits a dull granular form when broken. It melts between 62 and 66°C
and is lighter than water having specific gravity between 0.958 and 0.970 g/
cm3 at 25°C. The flash point is 254–274°C and the saponification value is
lower (3–5) for European type and higher (8–9) for Oriental type. It has a
honey-like odour and tastes faint. Beeswax is insoluble in water but is
soluble in hot alcohol, ether, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, warm fixed
oils and volatile oils. The wax is nearly white but becomes yellowish or brown
by incorporation of pollen oils and propolis. The scales are about 3 mm across
and 0.1 mm thick and about 1100 make a gram of wax. The aroma of beeswax
is due to 48 hydrocarbon compounds and out of 100 volatile constitutens in
it only 41 have been identified. This is generally classified into two types
namely, the European type and Oriental type. The best substitutes are
hydroxy-octa-cosanyl-hydroxy stearate and Japanese wax.
Chemical Constituents
The empirical formula is [C15H31COOC30H61]. The main components of
beeswax are palmitate, palmitoleate, hydroxypalmitate and oleate esters
of long chain (30–32 carbons) aliphatic alcohols and two principal
components triacontanylpalmitate (CH3(CH2)29O–CO–(CH2)14CH3) and
cerotic acid (CH3(CH2)24COOH) in the ratio of 6 : 1. The beeswax mainly
contains an ester myricin (Miricyl palmitate) up to an extent of 78%, free
wax acids (14%) especially cerotic acid and its homologus along with cerin,
two alcohols, aromatic substances and colouring matter. The percentage
of the contents of beeswax is hydrocarbons (14%), monoesters (35%),
diesters (14%), triesters (3%), hydroxy monoesters (4%), hydroxy polyesters
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 183
(8%), acid esters (1%), acid polyesters (2%), free acids (12%), free alcohols
(1%) and unidentified substances (6%).
Palmitic acid or hexadecanoic acid CH3(CH2)14COOH or (C16H32O2)
Palmitoleic acid or hexadec-9-enoic acid [CH3(CH2)5CH=CH(CH2)7COOH]
or (C16H30O2)
Cerotic acid (hexacosanoic acid) (C26H52O2) or [CH3(CH2)24COOH]
History of Beeswax
This was ancient man’s plastic and for thousands of years was used as a
modelling material to create sculpture and jewelry molds in the lost-wax
casting or Cire perdue. This casting of metals by Greeks and Romans
involved a coating of wax model with plaster, melting of the wax and filling
the space with the molten metal. This method is still used by the jewellers,
goldsmiths and sculptors and also in dentistry. Romans sent their messages
on writing tablets coated with beeswax, written on the smooth surface
with a stylus and after it had been read, it was erased and reused for sending
a reply. Egyptians used it in ship building. Romans used it as a waterproofing
material for painted walls. In the middle ages it was used as a form of
currency. It was also used in making English longbow. It was used as a
sealing material and/or a stabiliser and a lubricant for bullets and fire arms.
Medicinal Uses
Beeswax has nonallergenic properties that can make it a useful skin
protection from airborne allergies. It is a good electric insulator. It provides
slight anti-inflammatory and antioxidant qualities which can benefit the
body. It contains natural moisturisers that make it useful as a skin and lip
balm. Sometimes, it may be applied to minor burns or other skin damage
to help the skin heal. This barrier also helps to protect the skin from
environmental toxins and irritants, which will not suffocate the skin but
allows it to breathe. It can also be mixed with honey and olive oil that can
serve as a natural treatment against eczema and psoriasis. Because it has
184 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
vitamin A, it improves hydration to the skin and also promotes cell
regeneration.
Yellow beeswax is used as a hardening agent for the preparations of
ointments cerates and plaster. It is an ingredient of paraffin ointment and
yellow ointment. In cosmetics, beeswax is used for the preparation of
lipsticks and face creams. It is a skin enhancer, skin moisturiser, liver
protector, cholesterol stabiliser, pain reliever, antiseptic (clears acne), lip
healer, eliminator of stretch marks, and relaxer. There is insufficient
evidence for its effectiveness against anal fissures, diaper rash,
haemorrhoids (piles), ring worm, jock itch, fungal skin infection, ulcers,
diarrhoea, hiccups, and other conditions.
Non-medical Uses
The food uses of beeswax include glazing of the fruits, candies and baked
goods. It is a natural ingredient of chewing gum. It is used as a coating for
cheese to protect it as it ages. The wax is used for making the candles and
used as a lubricant or as a wood polish and shoe polish. Beeswax candles
are preferred in Eastern Orthodox Churches, for the Easter Candles and
candles used in Roman Catholic Churches. It is an ingredient of moustache
wax and hair pomades. Earlier, it was used in the manufacture of cylinders
in the phonographs. Solid beeswax has many uses. It is used to fill the
worm-holes in the furniture, in Batik making and egg decoration, in lace
making, as a waxing thread in sewing, in waxing fishing lines for free
floating, etc. It is a thickening agent in herbal oils, in pine needle baskets,
to finish iron work, to flux molten lead, in candy creations, in pulling metals
into thin wires, in metal fabrication, etc.
Adulteration
The common adulterants are tallow, resin, colophony, hard paraffin,
ceresin, stearic acid, Japan wax (from the fruits of Rhus), spermaceti,
caranuba wax and other fats and waxes.
WOOL FAT
Synonyms
Anhydrous Lanolin, Adeps lanae anhydrous, Aloholes lanae, Wool wax,
Wool grease, Lanoline, Wool alcohol, Soof al kharoof (Arabic), Tukovy
(Czech), Das Lanolin (German), Grasa de lana (Spanish), Ullfett (Swedish).
Synonyms for Sheep
Sheep, Domestic sheep, Wild sheep, Urial, Feral sheep (English), Muflon
(Czech), Far (Danish), Moeflon (Dutch), Mouton (French), Muflao
(Portuguese), Tamfar, Fawr (Swedish), Mesha (Sanskrit), Gorre (Telugu),
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 185
La oveja (Spanish), Ovtsy (Russian), La pecora (Italian), Schafe (German),
Bhed (Hindi).
Biological Source
Lanolin is derived from Latin, lana meaning ‘wool’ and oleum meaning
‘oil’, coined in 1885 by German physician, Mathias Eugenius Oscar
Liebreich (1838–1908). Anhydrous wool fat (anhydrous lanolin) is a purified
cholesterin; a fat prepared from the wool (fleece) of the sheep, Ovis aries L.
(Class: Mammalia, Order: Ungulata, Family: Bovidae), secreted by the
sebaceous glands of wool bearing animals. This is also found in the skin
hair of the humans, feathers of the fowls, wool of domestic sheep and
different parts of other animals.
Source of wool fat—sheep
Sheep—source of lanolin
Collection and Preparation
Raw wool contains considerable quantities of ‘wool grease’ or crude lanolin,
the potassium salts of fatty acids and earthy matter. During extraction, a
large pot is taken with water until full. The raw wool is pushed into water
gently. One to three tablespoons of salt is added to water. Keep it over an
open fire outdoors. Keep the wool boiling over a period of several hours.
Add more water to avoid the burning of the wool. Remove the wool from
boiling water and keep it in a clean and waterproof area. Continue the
boiling of water until all the water gets evaporated. The substance
that remains is lanolin. Pour the lanolin through cheesecloth to
remove any impurities. Pour it into a bowl and leave it to cool. Upon
cooling, scrape off the lanolin and place it into sterilised jars, and it is
ready to use. Raw lanolin is separated by ‘cracking’ with sulphuric acid
from the washings of the scouring process and purified to fit it for the
medicinal use. Purification may be done by centrifuging with water and
by bleaching.
186 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Characters
Purified wool fat is a uniform, greasy, light-yellowish, homogeneous,
tenacious, unctuous solid not readily becoming rancid with a slight
characteristic odour. This is a mixture of esters of fatty acids with high
molecular weight alcohols. It melts at about 36–42°C. It is insoluble in water
but forms very stable emulsions. It is sparingly soluble in alcohol more so
when it is boiling. It is readily soluble in chloroform, ether, carbon disulphide, acetone, and benzene or petroleum ether. The saponification value
ranges from 90 to 102 and the specific gravity is 0.932 to 0.945 at 15°C.
Anhydrous lanolin Solid lanolin
Lanolin grease Pure lanolin
Chemical Constituents
This is not a true fat and lacks glycerides (glycerol esters). It primarily
consists of sterol esters instead. Its waterproofing property helps sheep in
shedding water from their coats. Lanolin contains cholesteryl and
isocholesteryl alcohols together with many esters of lanoceric acid,
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 187
lanopalmitic acid, carnaubic acid, myristic acid, oleic acid and cerotic and
palmitic acids.
Myristic acid (C14H28O2) or [CH3(CH2)12COOH]
History of Wool Fat
Lanolin is used since very ancient times in cosmetics and dermatology as
well as in industry like fabrics, lubricants and preparation of ink. The
ancient Greeks were the first to extract crude wool fat from the sheep’s
wool. Documentation from 700 BC describes a process of boiling wool in
water followed by the extraction of the top layer of grease. A more refined
method was discovered in 60 AD by the Greek physician, Dioscorides,
which consisted of pouring wool washings into a receptacle several times
until froth developed and a layer of wool wax was collected after the froth
disappeared. This product was called ‘oesypus’ by Dioscorides and it became
widely cited in several ancient medical texts and pharmacopeias. Otto
Braun, a German, patented a method for centrifuging the liquid derived
from wool washings and the term lanolin was coined. This discovery was
followed by the large scale production of lanolin in Germany and was
spread to UK in the 19th century. The use of sheep’s wool fat is ancient
and was handed down by Pliny in his Natural History and it was
reintroduced by Liebreich (1885) as a therapeutic agent. It is employed as
a non-irritating and efficient ointment base and has its own marked
advantage that it can be mixed with aqueous mixtures and glycerin.
Stellwagon and Liebreich and others believe it to be absorbed more rapidly
than any other fat. Modern methods of extraction from wool washings
involve sophisticated techniques like modified centrifugation, solvent
extraction and acid cracking. The crude wool grease is then purified and
modified in different ways to produce different products and derivatives.
In China, Wujiang Jinyu Lanolin Co. Ltd, has been a professional
manufacturer in anhydrous lanolin, industrial lanolin, refined lanolin,
pharmaceutical lanolin and its derivatives since 1991.
Medicinal Uses
Chemically, lanolin is similar to wax and can be used as a skin ointment,
waterproof wax, as a raw material in shoe polish and textiles like yarn or
felt. Medical grade lanolin is used as a cream to soothe the skin as it is
hypoallergenic and bacteriostatic. It is an emollient used on sore and