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148 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
from its use as a replacement for ‘castoreum’, a perfume made from the
perineal glands of the beaver (castor in Latin). It also has another name,
palm of christ or Palma Christi because of its ability to heal wounds and
cure ailments. The plant is the most poisonous in the world according to
Guinness Book of World Records (2007 edition) due to presence of ricin,
although the reports of actual poisoning are rare.
Ricinus communis
Geographical Sour
ce
Plant in fruit
Single seedCastor seeds
Castor is a native of India which is widely naturalised and cultivated and
is common and apparently wild in the jungles. It is also cultivated
throughout India, chiefly in Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Maharashtra
and grows wild in most tropical and temperate countries. Two varieties
are known, a perennial bush with large red seeds yielding about 40% of oil
in the tropics and a smaller annual herb with small grey seeds with brown
spots and yielding about 37% of oil in the temperate regions. The plant is
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 149
indigenous to South-eastern Mediterranean basin, Eastern Africa and India
but is widespread in tropical regions of the world. The principal castor
producing countries are Brazil, India, China, Russia, South America and
Thailand.
Characters of Seeds (Beans)
The seeds show considerable differences in size and colour. They are oval,
somewhat compressed ventrally, the dorsal surface being convex. The seed
measures 8–18 mm in length and 4–12 mm in breadth. The testa is very
smooth, thin, glossy and brittle. The colour may be a more or less uniform
grey, grey-brown or black, or may be variously mottled with reddish-brown
or black spots and lines. Tegmen is white, membranous adhering to large,
yellowish-white oily endosperm. A small, often yellowish, caruncle is
usually present at one end covering the micropyle, from which runs the
line-like raphe to terminate in a slightly raised chalaza at the opposite end
of the seed. The testa is easily removed to disclose the papery remains of
the nucellus surrounding the endosperm. Within the latter lies the embryo,
with two thin, flat, papery cotyledons, a conical hypocotyl and a radicle
directed towards the caruncle. The taste is oily and acrid.
Collection and Preparation
Usually castor oil is obtained after removing the seed coat. Sometimes, the
seeds are placed in grooved rollers and crushed when the testa (outer seed
coat) becomes loosened and is removed by blowing in the air current. The
cleaned seeds are decorticated, hulls removed and the kernels are coldpressed at room temperature by suitable hydraulic presses (oil-expellers)
maintaining the pressure of 1–2 tons per square inch. About 30% of the
seed oil is thus extracted out. The oil is filtered but it contains ricin (a
poisonous principle) and enzyme lipase. Steam is passed into the oil at a
temperature between 80 and 100°C when ricin gets coagulated and
precipitated and the lipase becomes inactive. The oil is filtered and is refined
by steaming, filtration and bleaching. Cold expression yields medicinal oil
Pure castor oil
150 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Bleached castor oil
Hydrogenated oil
Sulphated castor oil
Castor oil crystals
and known in commerce as ‘cold drawn oil’ (used for medicinal purposes).
Remaining oil of the seeds is extracted by hot expression or solvent
extraction methods. This oil is not suitable for medicinal purposes and is
only of industrial significance. The oil cake or the pomace is a by-product.
Chemical Constituents
The pure oil is clear or viscid fluid almost colourless to very pale yellow
and with mild or slight odour and highly nauseable and disagrreable taste
(cold-drawn oil). The fixed oil is 45% and is soluble in alcohol. It has a
boiling point of 313°C and specific gravity of 0.96. It dissolves freely in
alcohol, ether and glacial acetic acid. Castor oil consists of ricinolein which
is a mixture of the triglycerides of ricinoleic, isoricinoleic acids along with
oleic, stearic, palmitic and dihydroxystearic acids. The fixed oil also contains
a toxalbumose ricin, lipase and protein. The oil is viscid and the purgative
action is said to be due to ricinolein and tristearin, the glyceride of
dihydroxystearic acid. The cake left after expression contains an extremely
poisonous toxin known as ricin (a deadly water-soluble protein, lectin),
which make it unfit for use (violently purgative, causes agglutination and
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 151
haemolysis of RBCs, haemorrhage in the digestive tract and damage to
liver and kidneys) as cattle feed but it can be used as a fertiliser.
Ricinine or ricinin (C8H8N2O2)
Ricinoleic acid (C18H34O3)
Ricolenic acid
152 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Stearic acid (C18H36O2)
Palmitic acid (C16H32O2)
Tristearin (C57H
110O6
)
History of Castor Oil
The seeds of castor have been found in Egyptian tombs which date back to
4000 BC and the oil was used mostly to fuel lamps. The Greek travellers
and Herodotus (called it as kiki – 4th centruy BC) also noted the use of the
oil for lighting, body ointments and improving the growth and texture of
hair. Theophrastus and Dioscorides (1st century) not only described the
plant but also gave an account of extraction and said that it is not fit for
food, but used in medicine externally and that the seeds are extremely
purgative. Pliny also described it to be a drastic purgative. It is understood
that Cleopatra used the oil to brighten the whites of her eyes. The Ebers
Papyrus, the ancient Egyptian medical treatise (1552 BC) describes the oil
as a laxative. Egyptian doctors used the oil to protect the eyes from irritation.
In United States, the oil has been used medicinally since the days of the
pioneers. In India, since 2000 BC the use of the oil in wick lamps, as a facial
oil and local medicine as a laxative, purgative and cathrtic in Unani,
Ayurvedic and other systems of medicine has been well-documented. The
Ayurvedic medicine considers the oil as the ‘king of medicinals’ for curing
arthritis. Gerard (1597) called Oleum ricinum (Ricinus or Kik) and said that
it can be used externally in skin diseases. In China, the seed and the oil
have been used in local medicine for dressings and internal use. In the
early civilisations, the oil was used in the rituals of sacrifice to please the
gods. Under the regime of Benito Mussolini, the Italian dictator, the oil
was known to have been used as an instrument of coercion by the
paramilitary to cause the death of the opponents by forced ingestion of the
large amounts of the oil to trigger severe diarrhoea and dehydration. In
Canary Islands, the fresh leaves are used as an external application by
nursing mothers to increase the flow of milk.
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 153
Medicinal Uses
Castor oil, once widely used as a domestic purgative is now more restricted
to hospital use for administration after food poisoning and as a preliminary
to intestinal examination. The oil is a non-irritant purgative and after
reaching the duodenum it is decomposed by the pancreatic juice into
ricinoleic acid which irritates the bowels and stimulates the intestinal glands
and the muscular coat thus causing purgation. It acts in 4 to 5 hours causing
liquid stools without pain or griping and has a sedative effect too on the
intestines. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of USA has
categorised castor oil as ‘generally recognised as safe and effective’ (GRASE)
as a laxative with its major site of action, the small intestine. Ricinoleic
acid is absorbed into the blood and tissues and excreted along with the
human milk which when sucked by the babies imparts its purgative action.
This also exerts anti-inflammatory effects. Ricinin is a violent irritant of
the intestines, kidneys and bladder and gives rise to inflammation of the
bile duct and very often causes jaundice and dysuria. The pure oil is
administered either plain or in emulsion with mucilage in inflammatory
conditions of the bowels, in diarrhoea of children. In simple diarrhoea of
adults it is mixed with opium. It is also useful in irritable conditions of the
system among the debilitated persons and for young children. It is also
used for lying-in women after childbirth and before the childbirth to
facilitate delivery, in operations for lithotomy, in peritonitis, in dysentery,
and inflammatory diseases of the urinary organs. The oil is best given
floating in milk, strong coffee, dry ginger water or omum water. In small
doses, the oil is great service to soften the faeces and lubricate the passages
in painful affections of the rectum and haemorrhoids (piles). In sore nipples,
the oil is smeared over freely each time the child is removed from the breast.
It is used as an enema in constipation. The oil is also used to expel worms,
in complaints of ringworm and itch. It is used to remove the foreign bodies
in the eyes and ears. The oil is much praised for its efficacy in chronic
articular rheumatism, colic, sciatica and lumbago. A poultice of the crushed
seeds promotes suppuration, helps in the maturation of the boils and
reduces the gout as well as rheumatic swelling. As the oil is an excellent
solvent of pure alkaloids like atropine, cocaine, etc. it is used in ophthalmic
surgey. The oil can also be used in many disorders like breast pain and
gallstones.
In folk medicine, it is used in skin problems, burns, sunburns, skin cuts
and abrasions, etc. It has also been used to remove the styes in the eye and
as a rub for abdominal complaints, headaches, muscle complaints,
inflammation, skin eruptions, lesions and sinusitis. It has also been noted
for its ability in acne healing. The oil has been used to induce childbirth in
pregnant women, but the use requires consultation of a medical
practitioner. In South Egypt, women use a full large spoon of castor oil to
prevent the pregnancy for one year.
154 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
Non-medical Uses
Castor oil is put to many other uses industrially in transportation, cosmetics,
illumination, lubrication of machinery, hydraulic and brake fluids,
adhesives, making of soaps, candles, paints, dyes, coatings, pomatum, inks,
lacquer, refrigetation lubricants, paper making, leather dressing, cold
resistant plastics, waxes, polishes, greases, rubbers, washing powders,
waxes, machine oils, pigments, nylon and perfumes, etc. It is also a useful
lubricant in jet, diesel and race-car engines and high voltage capacitors.
Earlier, it was used by the Egyptians as an ointment thousands of years
ago and in India for lighting the rail road lanterns as recently as 1895. It is
also employed as an emollient in preparation of lipsticks and as
sulphorecinolate in tooth formulation being a strong bactericide. Turkey
red oil (sulfated castor oil) was the first synthetic detergent after ordinary
soap and is used in the formulation of lubricants and dyes. The oil is used
as a food additive, flavouring, and candies, as a mold inhibitor and in
packaging. The important minor use of the oil is in the manufacture of flypapers.
The side effects that require medical attention include confusion,
irregular heart beat, muscle cramps, skin rash and weakness. The other
less serious side effects are belching, diarrhoea and nausea. If used
moderately, the oil is normally safe. However, pregnant women, lactating
women and people suffering from intestinal blockages, acute inflammatory
intestinal disease, appendicitis or abdominal pain should not take castor
oil without the approval of the medical practitioner.
COD LIVER OIL
Synonyms
Oleum morrhuae, Oleum Jecoris Aselli, Cod oil, Lebertran (German), Huile
de Foie de Morue (French), De higado de bacalao (Spanish), Oleo de figado
de bacalhai (Portuguese), Olio de fegato di merhizzo (Italian), Huodao
fukuan (Chinese).
Synonyms for Cod
Torsk, Kabliau (Danish), Bakalar, Bakalarom (Czech), Voor de mal houden
(Dutch), Cabillaud (French), Kabeljau (German), Vakalaos, Bakaliaros,
Bakalaos (Greek), Bacalhau (Portuguese), Treska (Russian), Abadejo,
Bacalao (Spanish), Kabeljou (Swedish), Triski, Triska (Ukrainian).
Biological Source
Medicinal cod liver oil is a fixed oil prepared from the fresh liver of the
codfish, Gadus callarias (=Gadus morhua morhua, G. arenosus, G. callarias, Baltic
cod, Variable cod), G. morrhua L. (=Gadus morhua callarias is the accepted
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 155
name, Atlantic cod) and other species of Gadus (Family: Gadidae) under
conditions which give a palatable oil containing due proportion of vitamins.
G. morhua
G. callarias
—Baltic cod
—Atlantic cod
Geographical Source
Cod fish inhabits the cooler and deeper waters of Northern Atlantic Ocean,
and cod liver oil is a by-product of the fishing industry. Large quantity of
oil is prepared in coastal regions of USA, Norway, Japan, Poland, Scotland,
Iceland, Germany, Denmark and Great Britain.
Collection and Preparation
The livers of the cod fish are removed while the fish are still fresh during
the fish processing by hand gutting or mechanical splitters, taking care to
exclude the gallbladder. They are then washed and the oil is extracted either
by direct steam process or by subjecting them to a gentle heat in iron pots
or by cold expression or electrolysis. The steaming takes place in closed
containers in carbon dioxide atmosphere to prevent oxidation. The first
fraction called the ‘ordinary refined oil’ is marketed for medicinal purposes.
The second fraction called ‘common cod oil’ is not used medicinally. The
oil is refined by chilling in tin vessels at a low temperature of minus 5°C;
and the precipitated stearin or solid fat is separated from the lighter vitamincontaining oil by decantation and filtration. Finally, the oil is adjusted to
definite vitamin-content (50 units per gram) by admixture, if necessary, of
different lots with higher or lower vitamin levels.
Characters
Cod liver oil is a thin, pale-yellow liquid that has a distinctive, mild sardinelike flavour to an intense odour of a fish but not rancid odour and a fishy
taste. It is slightly soluble in alcohol and completely soluble in chloroform,
ether, carbon disulphide and ethyl acetate. It has a specific gravity of 0.918
156 Textbook of Pharmacognosy
to 0.927 at 25°C. The medicinal value of oil is due to vitamin A and vitamin
D group. 1 gm of oil contains not less than 255 mcg of vitamin A and 2.125
mcg of vitamin D. The oil contains glyceryl esters of oleic, linoleic, gadoleic,
myristic, palmitic and other acids. Cod liver oil also contains 7%
eicosapentanoic acid and 7% docosahexanoic acid. Both of them are omega3 fatty acids.
Chemical Constituents
Cod liver oil has high levels of omega-3 fatty acids, EPA and DHA. It
also contains fat soluble vitamin A, vitamin D, traces of iodine and
bromine, organic compounds, jecolein, therapin, palmatin, biliary acids,
cholesterin, the alkaloids aselline and morrhuine, etc. The oil is a mixture
of glycerides of fatty acids, predominantly oleic acid, gadoleic acid and
palmitoleic acid. Vitamin A represents the growth promoting and antixerophthalmic element while vitamin D represents the anti-rachitic element
of the oil.
Gelatin capsules of oil
EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid)—omega 3 fatty acid (C20H30O2)
Pure cod liver oil
Systematic Pharmacognostic Study of Lipids 157
DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) or cervonic acid (C22H32O2)
Gadoleic acid (C
Palmitoleic acid (C
20H38O2
)—eicosenoic acid
16H30O2
)
History of Cod Liver Oil
The cod liver oil first became established in the poor fishing communities
of North of England, Scotland, Ireland, Northern Europe, Iceland, Norway,
Newfoundland and Greenland several centuries ago where they used it to
protect themselves against the rigour in the intense cold that they were