Пополняем словарь, совершенствуя грамматику = Target Vocabulary Through Grammar Revision. Учебное пособие

SECTION FOUR. GRAMMAR REVISION: MODAL VERBS (SUPPOSITIONAL MEANING, SPECIFIC USES) TARGET VOCABULARY: UNIT SIX (ARAKIN BOOK, PART V)

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С. В. МАЙОРШИНА, Ю. С. КУЗИН. ПОПОЛНЯЕМ СЛОВАРЬ, СОВЕРШЕНСТВУЯ ГРАММАТИКУ

S. V. MAYORSHINA, Y. S. KUZIN. TARGET VOCABULARY THROUGH GRAMMAR REVISION

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SECTION FOUR. GRAMMAR REVISION: MODAL VERBS (SUPPOSITIONAL MEANING, SPECIFIC USES) TARGET VOCABULARY: UNIT SIX (ARAKIN BOOK, PART V)

2. Nine modals (excluding shall) can be used in the Suppositional Meaning and thus can be arranged according to the degree of certainty or uncertainty that the speaker feels. Might can be considered as the most uncertain, must as the most certain (see below).

While modals show the degree of certainty the speaker expresses, it is the form of the infinitive of the action/state verb that shows temporal relation towards the actions indicated or implied:

He may/might be translating the article now.

(Возможно, он сейчас переводит статью.)

He may/might translate the article tomorrow.

(Возможно, он переведет статью завтра.)

He may/might have been translating the article for a week.

(Возможно, он переводит эту статью уже неделю.)

He may/might have translated the article last week.

(Возможно, он перевел статью на прошлой неделе.)

3. Can’t in the suppositional meaning expresses a certain negative attitude (disbelief) to the action/state verb:

He can’t be reading the book, he said he’d returned it to the library.

(Не может быть, что он сейчас читает эту книгу, он сказал, что вернул ее в библиотеку.)

He can’t have read the book, he said he was going to borrow it in the library.

(Не может быть, что он прочитал эту книгу, он сказал, что собирается взять ее в библиотеке.)

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С. В. МАЙОРШИНА, Ю. С. КУЗИН. ПОПОЛНЯЕМ СЛОВАРЬ, СОВЕРШЕНСТВУЯ ГРАММАТИКУ

S. V. MAYORSHINA, Y. S. KUZIN. TARGET VOCABULARY THROUGH GRAMMAR REVISION

4. The modal verbs must and can are not used to express certainty and disbelief in negative sentences or when the action refers to the future. Modal words and phrases are used instead:

5. Should (not)/ought (not) + Indefinite Infinitive is used for a present and future action, should (not) + Perfect Infinitive is used for a past action. In the Suppositional meaning, we use should/ought to for probability and shouldn’t/ought not to for improbability. We believe the statement to be true because of our prior knowledge, experience or present evidence:

The plane should be landing about now.

There shouldn’t be problems with traffic at that time of the evening. We rarely use should to ‘predict’ a negative (unpleasant,

unfavourable) situation. Instead we use will:

There’ll be problems with traffic at that time. The roads will be awful! (Incorrect: There should be problems with traffic at that time. The roads should be awful.)

We use should (not)/ought (not) to + Perfect Infinitive to talk about the probability of an action in the past:

I don’t know where our main speaker can be. He should have arrived hours ago.

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SECTION FOUR. GRAMMAR REVISION: MODAL VERBS (SUPPOSITIONAL MEANING, SPECIFIC USES) TARGET VOCABULARY: UNIT SIX (ARAKIN BOOK, PART V)

6. To express necessity, use need to, must and have to:

All living beings need to/must/have to take in sustenance in order to live.

If we want to express a necessity without suggesting who should deal with it, we can use need + -ing form. Its meaning is passive in this use and is similar to the passive infinitive:

The car definitely needs cleaning/to be cleaned.

7. To express an order from a person in authority or pre-arranged necessity, we can use to be to:

The members of the jury are to report to the judge’s chambers. (order) You are to start tomorrow’s conference, come a bit earlier. (pre-

arranged necessity)

In formal contexts we also use to be obliged to/obligated to (US) or to be required to:

We’re obliged to contribute twenty-five per cent of the costs of the repairs.

Motorists are required by law to wear seat belts in the European Union. To be supposed to is used for lesser obligation and one that

is frequently ignored:

We’re supposed to leave our textbooks at school, but we often take them home.

To be liable to can be used for obligation, often in a legal context:

Anyone causing damage will be liable to pay for all necessary repairs.

8. Needn’t + Indefinite Infinitive shows that the action if performed would be useless. Needn’t + Perfect Infinitive shows that the action performed was a waste of time and effort.

I hope everybody in this room knows English, so I needn’t translate the quotation. (= It is not necessary for me to translate the quotation because everybody in this room knows English.)

You needn’t have translated the quotation for us, we all know English well enough. (= We all understood the quotation as we know English well enough. Your translation wasn’t necessary.)

To indicate that the action was not performed because it was not necessary, use didn’t have to/didn’t need to:

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С. В. МАЙОРШИНА, Ю. С. КУЗИН. ПОПОЛНЯЕМ СЛОВАРЬ, СОВЕРШЕНСТВУЯ ГРАММАТИКУ

S. V. MAYORSHINA, Y. S. KUZIN. TARGET VOCABULARY THROUGH GRAMMAR REVISION

When I went to Sweden, I didn’t have to/didn’t need to take a lot of cash because they accepted credit cards everywhere. (I was informed of it, so I didn’t take much cash with me.)

9.When giving advice/recommendation, expressing disapproval or reprimanding somebody, use should. When stating that the action was or will be a waste of time and effort, use need.

You shouldn’t have criticized her behind her back. (disapproval/ reprimanding)

You needn’t have told her about the party, I had already told her about it yesterday. (it wasn’t necessary)

10.We use must for strong recommendation and advice, with this use must is usually heavily stressed in speech. Recommendation and advice with should or ought to is less emphatic:

You really must read this writer’s latest book! It’s stunning!

You must do something about that cough. Please go and see the doctor. Even people as young as twenty-five should consider a personal

pension.

Children ought not to spend long periods in front of a computer screen. Had better (not) expresses the best thing to do in a particular situa-

tion. It often has a sense of urgency and can be a warning or a threat:

It the burglars took your keys, you’d better change the locks in case they come back.

Your dog had better not dig up my rose bush again!

11.We often use will/won’t to talk about actions that have become so routine that they are predictable:

Every lesson is the same: he’ll sit down, get his books out and then he’ll start giving us instructions. He won’t greet us or show any interest in us.

This use of will can be extended to talk about habits and characteristics, but we also can use present simple to describe characteristics and habits:

The public will always side with/sides with the nurses in any dispute. The dominant male of the group will not tolerate/does not tolerate

the presence of other males.

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SECTION FOUR. GRAMMAR REVISION: MODAL VERBS (SUPPOSITIONAL MEANING, SPECIFIC USES) TARGET VOCABULARY: UNIT SIX (ARAKIN BOOK, PART V)

Will can also be used when talking about the characteristics of ability or capacity. Can and the present simple may express the same idea.

The Olympic stadium in Sydney will hold/can hold/holds 110,000 people.

The model will do/can do/does 0 to 100 kilometers per hour in eight seconds.

We also use will (not present simple) to describe an annoying habit or to make a criticism. Note that we do not contract will in this meaning, we stress it.

We enjoy going out with Carol and Frank, but they will argue in public! (Incorrect: We enjoy going out with Carol and Frank, but they’ll argue in public.)

We often use will/won’t to criticize inanimate objects, especially when we’re annoyed with it. If we just state a simple fact, with no or little annoyance, we use the present simple.

Whatever I do, my car won’t start first time on cold mornings. My car doesn’t start/never starts first time on cold mornings.

12. To talk about past habits (habits in the past), we use would/ wouldn’t.

Every lesson was the same: he’d sit down, get his books out and then he’d start giving us instructions. He wouldn’t greet us or show any interest in us.

We can also use would/wouldn’t to criticize or talk about annoying habits in the past. Note that we do not contract would to ‘d in this case, we stress it.

When Alex was a toddler, he would cling on to me whenever a stranger came in.

(However, we do not always stress would when it is followed by an adverb:

My boss was awful, he ‘d invariably find something for me to do at five o’clock.)

We can also use would/wouldn’t to talk about inanimate objects, when we were annoyed with them in the past:

The car would never start on winter mornings when we were in Sweden.

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С. В. МАЙОРШИНА, Ю. С. КУЗИН. ПОПОЛНЯЕМ СЛОВАРЬ, СОВЕРШЕНСТВУЯ ГРАММАТИКУ

S. V. MAYORSHINA, Y. S. KUZIN. TARGET VOCABULARY THROUGH GRAMMAR REVISION

Exercise 1. Answer the questions expressing supposition. Follow the model.

Model: Why do you think the driver was fined? – He may/might have jumped the red line.

1. Why do you think the performance was cancelled? 2. Where do you think the conference will be held? 3. What do you think Roger has been doing all this time? 4. What do you think was keeping Mr. White? 5. Why do you think Helen is so frustrated? 6. Where do you think Donald is? 7. Why do you think the train crashed? 8. When do you think Martin is coming? It’s getting late. 9. What do you think happened to Professor Smith? He looks so upset. 10. Who do you think will be awarded the first prize for the best essay?

Exercise 2. Draw conclusions of the facts following. Use must to express certainty. Follow the model.

Model: Charles has got a good tan. – He must have spent his vacation at the sea-side.

1.Mary’s English has improved since we met last.2.He looks athletic, doesn’t he? 3. Tom’s new novel has become a bestseller. 4. The watch didn’t break when I dropped it. 5. The service in this restaurant has improved considerably. 6. This cake is fantastic! 7. Look, Jack is coming home, but he left half an hour ago! 7. I like this fitness center, it’s quite modern and is located close to my office. 8. I’m surprised that I couldn’t make a reservation, my favourite hotel turned out to be full. 9. This is a new player, I’m glad they bought him, he’s a pretty good full-back (защитник). 10. Jane finally got her car after the repairs, it looks brand new.

Exercise 3. Express disbelief about these facts, use can’t/couldn’t.

Follow the model.

Model: The film was a flop, but Simon says he loved it. – If the film was a flop, Simon can’t/couldn’t have loved it, he knows a good film when he sees it.

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SECTION FOUR. GRAMMAR REVISION: MODAL VERBS (SUPPOSITIONAL MEANING, SPECIFIC USES) TARGET VOCABULARY: UNIT SIX (ARAKIN BOOK, PART V)

1. Mr. Webb has never left England, but Molly says she saw him in Paris. 2. George is a hard-working and conscientious student, but Alice says he failed his Physics exam. 3. Michael is quite fluent in Spanish, but Ann says he couldn’t ask the way to Placa Catalunya when in Barcelona. 4. Deborah has been living in this neighbourhood since she was a girl, but Mark says, she has lost her way. 5. The TVshow was thoroughly bad, but Walter says he enjoyed it. 6. Alice invited Mr. Norton to dinner but I hear they are not on friendly terms. 7. John is never late, but Helen says he was half an hour late for an important meeting. 8. I’ve known Jack for years, but he’s changed so much since our last meeting that I didn’t recognize him at the party. 9. Carol admires this director’s films, but Max says she hated his recent film. 10. Tina graduated with honours, but Larry says she has several satisfactory marks.

Exercise 4. Change the sentences to express a) certainty, b) supposition, c) disbelief. Use modal verbs and their equivalents appropriately, mind the form of the infinitive. Follow the model.

Model: The flight has been cancelled.

a)The flight must have been cancelled. (certainty)

b)The flight may/might have been cancelled. (supposition)

c)The flight can’t/couldn’t have been cancelled. (disbelief)

a)1. The door is locked on the inside. 2. Jane sprained her ankle.

3.Helen has been held up by the traffic. 4. He is still lecturing at Boston University.5.The Browns will make a stop-over in Paris.6.The treaty will be ratified in the near future. 7. They didn’t get Mr Carter on the phone.

8.Joseph didn’t recognize me. 9. The case against Mr Tucker will be dismissed. 10. Robert won’t violate traffic rules.

b)1. The driver took a side road. 2. You’ve left your passport at home.

3.There was a mistake in the calculations. 4. This issue was added later.

5.Jean forgot all about it. 6. Douglas will go on holiday in June. 7. Margo has an alibi. 8. He won’t come to the party. 9. She is still in the library.

10.He has been working on this theme for several years.

c)1. We missed our stop. 2. Mary is so naive. 3. She didn’t recognize me. 4. They are still debating the issue. 5. Mr Hammond will be voted

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С. В. МАЙОРШИНА, Ю. С. КУЗИН. ПОПОЛНЯЕМ СЛОВАРЬ, СОВЕРШЕНСТВУЯ ГРАММАТИКУ

S. V. MAYORSHINA, Y. S. KUZIN. TARGET VOCABULARY THROUGH GRAMMAR REVISION

down. 6. Simon will change his mind. 7. Roy was fined for speeding. 8. The plane won’t crash. 9. Nobody will get injured. 10. I didn’t understand you.

Exercise 5. Study the list of modern popular conspiracy theories. Group these statements according to your own personal level of certainty or uncertainty. Change the statements using the necessary modal verbs and expressions. Explain your points of view.

Model: I suppose the Loch Ness monster isn’t likely to exist as there’s still no reliable factual evidence proving this.

1.The Loch Ness monster exists.

2.The world is controlled by Freemasons.

3.Aliens sometimes kidnap humans (and probe them in their space ships).

4.The American government knows that aliens exist.

5.Global warming is a lie (made up to give governments more control over people’s lives).

6.Governments know that fluoride in the water is harmful.

7.The oil industry knows where lots more oil is (but pretends it doesn’t so the price stays high).

8.The CIA experimented with using LSD as a truth drug.

9.An alien was dissected at the Roswell American air force base.

10.Humans were created by aliens.

11.The Americans didn’t really land on the moon.

12.The Apollo moon landing was a hoax (filmed in a studio by Stanley Kubrick).

13.President Kennedy was assassinated by the CIA with the Mafia.

14.Jack the Ripper was never caught because he was someone important (and the police protected him).

15.Shakespeare’s plays were written by someone else.

16.The Americans dropped the atom bomb on Japan to scare the Soviet Union.

17.Princess Diana was murdered by the British Royal Family (because she was going to marry a Muslim).

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