Index

acronyms 214, 270 Adams, John 417 Adamson, S. 126, 303

adjectives 56, 111, 115–16, 122; see also under Middle English, Old English

attributive 122 predicative 122, 124

weak and strong forms 117, 124, 125, 126

adjuncts 125 adverbial phrases 190

adverbs 113, 125, 126, 190, 245, 398 position of 156, 190, 192

advertising 428

Ælfric 35, 218, 355, 358, 359

Grammar and Vocabulary 215 vocabulary 358

African American English 410–12 features of 411

grammar 411 pronunciation 410, 411 vocabulary 411

air travel 24, 430 Airspeak 430 Aitchison, J. 205 Aitken, A. J. 380, 437

Aitken’s Law 380, 383 Alfred 11, 35

standardisation 271, 273 writings 30, 218, 355

Algeo, J. 266

Algonquian words 384, 399 Allen, Alex 423

Allen, C. L. 119, 168 Allen, H. B. 398 Alston, R. C. 285

American Dialect Society 404

American English 22, 247, 300, 309, 399 adverbs 398

African American English 410–12

Atlas of North American English 404–8 borrowing 385, 394–6, 399

from French 394 from German 395 from Spanish 395

from West African languages 395 from Yiddish 395–6

Chicano English 412 codification of 393 collective nouns 396 colonial 384–91

character of 388 origins of 387–90

consonants 408

dialects 401, 404, 412, 418

Dictionary of American Regional English

399–404 Ebonics 436 ellipsis 397

ethnic dialects 410 French loan words 394–5 got 397

homogeneity of 389 infinitive markers 397 innovation 394, 399 interrogatives 397

Latino English 412–13, 416 negation 397

Northern Cities Shift 405–6, 408, 411, 413 nouns 396–7, 398

official languages 417–18 personal names 324 place-names 390–1 pluricentric 309 prepositions 398

/r/ 409

regional patterns 398–9 relative clauses 397 social dialects 408–9

social meanings and attitudes 416–17 Southern Shift 406–7, 408

Spanish influence 413 St Louis Corridor 408 standardisation 273 syntax 396–8 ValSpeak 42

verbs 397, 398 vowels 405–8, 416

American Name Society 351 Anderson, O. 319

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 14, 35, 224, 318, 355 Anglo-Saxons 1, 9–10, 217

Anshen, F. 260 Aronoff, M. 260, 289 articles 55, 117, 121 Ash, S. 418

Ashley, L. R. N. 336 Atkinson, D. 306

Atlas of North American English 404–8 Auchinleck MS 275

Austen, Jane 36

Austin, F. 291 Australia 22, 41, 437

Australian Question Intonation 41 dictionaries 266, 309 place-names 336

Axtell, J. 389

Baayen, R. H. 260 Bailey, N. 283

Bailey, R. W. 385, 392, 415, 422 Baker, R. 285

Barber, C. 279 Barbour, John 366 Bardsley, C. W. 322 Barnes, William 273 Barry, H. III 324 Bauer, L. 210

Baugh, A. C. 220, 221, 274, 283, 284 Bede 3, 9, 10, 318

Bell, E. O. 323

Beier, A. L. 18

Benedictine Reform 217, 218, 220, 221 Benskin, M. 359, 362

Beowulf 186, 219, 220, 355 den Besten, H. 182

Biber, D. 304, 305

LGSWE 297, 298, 299, 301 objects 190, 297 subordinate clauses 171, 297

Bible, translations and versions 28 Authorised Version 28, 46, 96, 295

bilingualism 14, 224, 246, 272 Blake, N. 277

Bloomfield, L. 205

Blount, Thomas 301 Bodine, A. 274 Bokenham 97, 368 Bolinger, D. 123

Book of Common Prayer 28, 294

borrowing 17, 202, 203, 205, 206, 215, 270, 279, 385; see also under American English, Early Modern English, Middle English, Old English

Boyle, Robert 305

Breeze, A. 336, 337

Bright, William 317, 336 Brightman, J. 335

Brinton, L. 135, 137, 414, 415, 416 Britain 15, 18, 21, 24, 247

French language use 246 immigration and emigration 17–29 imperial power 21–2, 259–427 linguistic variation in 15

British Black English 383

British National Corpus 34 Britton, D. 74, 369 broadcasting 34, 377, 428–9 Bronstein, A. 309

Brown, K. 381 Bullokar, W. 284 Burchfield, R. 297, 310 Burke, D. M. 312

Burnley, D. 230, 249, 251, 290 Burrow, J. A. 365

Butters, R. 412 Bybee, J. 48

Cable, T. 220, 221, 274, 283, 284

Cambridge History of the English Language xiii Cameron, D. 34

Cameron, K. 335, 349 Campbell, Alistair 354, 356 Canada 22, 23, 391, 392, 413–16

grammar 415–16 homogeneity of 414 rhotic character 415 spelling 416 vocabulary 415 Newfoundland 413 official languages 417 pronunciation 414–15 Quebec 414, 417

canals 24 Caon, L. 290

Cape Town Standard English 107 Carlyle, Thomas 32

Carney, E. 290 Carr, C. T. 233, 234 Carroll, Lewis 269

Carver, C. 385, 395, 403, 404 case 111, 211

agreement 163

loss of 115, 187, 189 Cassidy, F. G. 25, 266 Cawdrey, Robert 257, 302

Caxton, William 256, 277–9, 301, 439 pronouns 75

spelling 289, 294 vocabulary 279 Celtic languages 8, 9

substratum for English 136, 154, 225–6

Chambers, J. K. 39, 299, 374 Canadian English 414, 415, 416

Chancery English 275, 277, 287, 294, 303, 368, 369

institutional role 287, 293 selection as standard 274, 275 Statutes of the Realm 304

change, language 36, 37–42, 43–6, 109, 110, 293 from above or below 272, 274, 282, 294 description and explanation 110

factors in 38–9 laws of 74 and names 313 radical 147–9

sound change 356, 359

synchronic and diachronic 114, 115 vertical and horizontal 46

Chapman, C. 375

Charles, B. G. 336

Chaucer 32, 62, 71, 72, 117, 126, 273, 275 Canterbury Tales 15, 68, 77, 79, 287, 360, 364 consensus MSS 71, 75, 81

dialect 275

The Grocers’ Ordinances 78 stress 67, 69

tense 133, 135

Treatise on the Astrolabe 78 Troilus & Criseyde 44–5, 67 Cheshire, J. 298, 299, 379, 380

Chicano English 412 grammar 413 pronunciation 412–13 vocabulary 413

Chomsky, N. 205, 252

Christianity, influence on English 28, 271, 358

Chronicle of Robert of Gloucester 14 Church of England 28

civil war 25, 32 Clapham, P. 274 Claridge, C. 192 Clark, C. 314, 320, 349

clauses, constituents of 160–81 impersonal constructions 166–8 infinitival clauses 172–7, 193–5 objects 164–6

passive voice 168–71 relative clauses 127–8, 397 subjects 160–4

subordinate clauses 171–2, 177–9, 180–1, 182 Clift family letters 291

Cnut 12

Coates, Richard 312–51, 359 Cohen, G. 312

Cole, A. 335, 340 Cole, Elisha 301, 340

Colman, F. 187, 314, 318, 319

Combe, William 316

communication 18, 22, 24–5, 33, 423, 431 comparative reconstruction 6–7

Cooper, Christopher 83, 97, 99–100 postvocalic /r/ 92

stress 94 verbs 99–100

vowels 85, 86, 88, 90, 91

vowels 85, 86, 88, 90, 91; lengthening of vowels 86, 89, 90

Coote, Edmund 370 Coplestone-Crow, B. 335

Corpus of Early English Correspondence 293 Coseriu, E. 205

Cota, A. A. 335

Coupland, N. 382 Cox, B. 347

creole languages 16, 17, 424, 436 Cresswell, Nicholas 389, 390 Cressy, D. 290, 295

Croft, W. 39 Cromwell, Thomas 296 Crowley, E. T. 270 Cruse, A. D. 205 Cruttenden, Alan 308

Crystal, David 1, 190, 300, 302, 308, 420–6 Cullen, P. 335

Culpeper, J. 274 culture 18, 39, 201, 224

Cursor Mundi 201, 361 Cuthwulf, King 325 Cutler, A. 323

Dalton-Puffer, C. 251, 252 Danchev, A. 16, 180 Danelaw 11, 16, 224, 338 Danielsson, B. 306 Davidse, K. 166 DeCamp, D. 354 Dekeyser, X. 299 Denison, David 1–38, 115

auxiliary 157, 158 determiners 120, 121 do 155, 157

determiners 56, 70, 71, 111, 116–21 dialects 353, 376, 388

levelling 352, 379, 380, 381, 382, 389 study of 352–3, 379

survival of 378, 379, 412 unintelligibility 435

urban and rural 378, 379, 380 Dickens, Charles 433 dictionaries 256, 257, 266

specialist 302

standardisation and 279–82, 283, 296, 299, 307, 308

Dictionary of American Regional English (DARE) 399–404

Dieth, Eugen 372

diffusion 37–8, 39, 64, 177, 288, 295 Dillard, J. L. 389

Dion, K. L. 335 diphthongs 49, 53, 60–1

Dissolution of the Monasteries 35 do 154–5, 157

causative 154–5

as an empty operator 112, 154, 155 Dobson, E. J. 370

Dodgson, J. M. 343

Dodsley, Robert 283

Domesday Book 12, 317, 339, 348 Donne, John 103

Dressler, W. 227 Duggan, D. A. 335 Dunbar, William 376 Dutch 129, 137, 152, 194

eager-to-please constructions 175, 176, 177 Early Modern English 81–104, 367–70

borrowing 257–9

from Celtic languages 259 from Dutch 259

from French 258 from Greek 259 from Italian 259 from Latin 257–8 from Portuguese 259 from Spanish 259

clipping 213 dialects 369

evidence, historical 367, 376 orthography 256

phonology 81–3 standardisation 256 vocabulary 256 voiceless fricatives 370 word formation 256, 260

acronyms 265 blending 265 clipping 265 compounding 260–1

prefixation 260, 261–3 suffixation 260

verbs 265

zero derivation 265 East India Company 23

easy-to-please constructions 175, 176 Eble, C. C. 392

Ebonics 436

Eckert, P. 416

Eco, U. 423

Eddis, William 389, 390

education 290, 311, 367, 377, 430–1, 434 and religion 28–9, 273

universities 20, 247 Edward the Confessor 12, 226 Edwards, J. 421

Ekwall, E. 335, 361 electronic mail 33 Elizabeth I 322

writings 90, 95, 102, 104, 290, 294 Elleg˚ard, Alvar 157, 158

Elliot, R. W. 279 ellipsis 40, 397

Ellis, A. J. 92, 106, 307 dialects 371, 376 vowels 104, 105

Elsness, J. 140–1

Elworthy, T. 371

Encyclopaedia Britannica 424 England 8–17, 258, 272, 274, 354

bilingualism 272, 273

English 2, 3–8, 48, 276–7, 282–4, 300 acceptance as standard 275–6

in Britain 352–83, 385–6, 387 British Black English 383 colonial 384–8, 390, 391 East Midland dialect 275 Estuary English 311, 378 Euro-English 438

as a family of languages 435–9 as a first language 1, 424, 438 French loanwords 14, 16 global: see global English Greater London variety 275 hybrids 438, 439

inflection 45, 72, 109 London English 295, 387 New Englishes 422, 433, 435 number of speakers 424, 425 onomastics 317–18

prestige of 432–3

as a second language 424, 434, 438 for special purposes 301, 305 special role 423, 427

syntax 282, 284, 396–8

varieties of 2, 48, 107, 266, 432–3, 437–8 Welsh English 382

Wycliffite 275 English Academy 283

English Dialect Dictionary 300 English Dialect Society 371

Essential English for International Maritime Use 430

Estuary English 311, 378 Ethelred 12

etymologising movement 280–1 Euro-English 438

European Union 423, 438 evidence, historical 29–35, 104, 217

Anglo-Saxon period 318

lack of 7, 201, 355–6, 358, 388, 422 Middle English 63

Old English 35–6, 52–3, 217

Exceptional Case Marking construction 193–5 Exeter Book 355

Farman 359

Fee, M. 414, 415, 416 Fellows-Jensen, G. 347, 348 Field, J. 337

Fielding, Henry 291

Fielding, Sarah 291

Fillmore, C. J. 207 films 34–5, 429 Filppula, M. 136

Finegan, Edward 300, 384–418

Finkenstaedt, T. 256, 266, 267 Finlay, R. 18, 24

First World War 26

Fischer, D. H. 386

Fischer, Olga 109, 131–59, 164, 299, 366

Fisher, J. H. 25, 275, 276, 287, 288 Flint, Mather 89, 90, 92

Florio, John 96 focussing 287–311

grammar 291, 299 institutions 294 pronunciation 306 vocabulary 306

Foley, J. A. 438 Fought, C. 412, 413 Fowler, H. W. 285, 303

France 247, 249, 258, 267, 372 Francis, W. N.

Franklin, Benjamin 417 Fransson, G. 330 French 248

word order 209

French influence 12, 14–16, 17, 246, 247, 248

in learned and public spheres 59, 247, 274 syntax 185, 187

French loanwords 16, 165, 274 in America 394–5 ecclesiastical words 249–50

government and administrative terms 249, 271, 338, 382

legal terms 250

in Middle English 247 and personal names 322

words for fashion, food, social life 250 Frisian 6, 226

Gammeltoft, P. 347 Garmonsway, G. N. 11 Gates, H. L. 412

Gawain and the Grene Knight 364, 366 Geckler, H. 205

Geipel, J. 223

Gelling, M. 335, 336, 340 gender 52, 55, 70, 115 genealogy 317

General English 298

German 47, 129, 137, 152, 194, 372 Germanic language 3, 5, 8, 109

case 55 names 319

pronunciation 68, 93 verbs 57, 80, 146 vocabulary 204 vowel attrition 61 word formation 208

Germanic Stress Rule 54, 67, 69, 94 gerunds 178–9, 181

Gil, Alexander 87, 93, 288, 369 Gimbutas, M. P. 5

Gimson, A. C. 308

global English 266, 310, 420–5, 426–31, 432–5 economic factors 427

factors in its spread 422, 427 future of 432–5

Gloucester Chronicle 179 Glover, A. 430

Gneuss, H. 216, 218, 222 Godden, M. R. 218

Goh Chok Tong 433 Gordon, I. A. 281, 300

Gorlach,¨ M. 16, 34–5, 256, 266, 267, 303 Gower 81, 275

Graddol, D. 421, 422, 425 Graeco-Latin loanwords 68, 303 Gramley, J. 298

grammar 38, 204, 211, 291–9, 371 focussed 289

standard and non-standard 299 variability in 45

grammar books 283, 296, 297 grammaticalisation 116, 130, 142, 155, 160,

213

of the auxiliaries 133, 160

of the future tense marker 133 of the modal verb 145

of the perfect tense 139, 140

of periphrastic constructions 137, 144, 153, 154

of the progressive 137

Great Vowel Shift 81–3, 252, 370, 405 Greek 6, 28

Green, L. 411

Greenwood, James 100–1, 284

Grenoble, L. A. 421

Grimm’s Law 7

Grote, David 300

Guildhall Letter Books 275

Haegeman, L. 161, 162 Haiman, J. 39

Hall, J. H. 25

Halle, M. 252 Halliday, M. A. K. 306 Halliwell, 371 Hamerow, H. F. 337 Hancock, I. 397 Hanley, J. R. 312 Hannah, J. 309 Hansen, B. H. 16, 223

Harley, Lady Brilliana 290 Harley, Sir Robert 290 Harold 12

Harper, A. S. 324 Harriot, Thomas 384 Harris, A. C. 130, 149 Harris, J. 383

Hart, John 83–4, 306 adjectives 95 consonants 84, 93

palatals and palatalisation 86, 93 vowels 84, 88, 90

mergers of 86, 87, 88, 90 Hartman, James 308

Hebrew 28 Heikkonen, K. 275 Hellinga, L. 279 Hellinga, W. 279

Helsinki Corpus of Early English Correspondence

41, 301 Henry II 15, 247 Henry III 35 Henry V 274, 339

Heptarchy of kingdoms 10 high rising terminal contour 41 Hiltunen, R. 137, 223, 235, 236 historiography 81

history 8, 43–6, 83, 104 Hodges, Richard 85, 88, 93, 103 Hofland, K. 301

Hofstetter, W. 218

Hogg, Richard 1–38, 79, 238, 352–83 Hopper, P. J. 122

Horgan, D. M. 236

Horovitz, D. 335

Hughes, G. 217 Hundred Years’ War 25 Hurston, Nora Zeale 411 hyponymy 205

Iglesias-R´abade, L. 165

Ihalainen, T. 371, 375–6 Ilson, R. F. 285

India 23

Indo-European language 3, 5, 69, 204, 245 industrialisation 21, 24, 427

Ine, King of Wessex 272, 274 infinitival clauses 172–7, 193–5 infinitive 57, 172, 175, 397

changes in 174, 175 inflection 45, 51–2, 109, 212

loss of 118, 139

and word-formation 211, 238, 245 Inkhorn Controversy 27, 257, 280 innovation 37, 39, 378

Inns of Court 20 Insley, J. 319

International Civil Aviation Organization 430 International Council of Onomastic Sciences 351 International Phonetic Alphabet 307 international travel 430

internet 431

interrogatives 112, 156, 184, 197, 397 Ireland 24, 382–3

Ulster English 383 Wexford dialects 382

isoglosses 6, 24–5, 402

Jack, G. B. 179 Jackson, K. H. 221 Janda, R. D. 119 Jespersen, O. 214, 299 Johansson, S. 301

John, King of England 247, 274 John of Trevisa 360–1, 368 Johnson, E. 290

Johnson, F. R. 282

Johnson, Dr Samuel 96, 256, 283, 286, 299, 302 Johnson, J. 293, 295

Johnson, S. 296 Jones, C. 309

Jones, Daniel 307, 308, 309 Jonson, Ben 92, 284 journalism 32

Junius manuscript 355 Jutes 9

Kachru, B. 425

Kallen, J. L. 382 K¨arre, K. 234

Kastovsky, Dieter 199–270 Kaufman, T. 16

Kay, J. 312 Keast, W. R. 299

van Kemenade, A. 182, 183, 186, 196 kennings 219, 234

Kenyon, John 309

Kerswill, Paul 381–2

King James Bible 294

Kirkby, John 94, 100

Kitson, P. 341, 358, 359

Klein, K. 312

Klemola, J. 154

Knott, Thomas 309

Krapp, G. P. 392, 399

Kripke, S. 314

Kristensson, G. 357, 361

Kroch, A. 16, 184, 187

Kroesch, S. 222

Kurath, Hans 388–9, 398, 399, 401

Kynvett, Thomas 97

Kyto,¨ M. 180

Labov, William 41, 379, 404, 408, 416, 418 Laing, M. 61, 63, 66, 360

Laird, C. G. 387, 395 Lance, D. M. 416

language 90, 92, 94, 199, 201 approaches to analysis of 43, 110 codification of 99

endangered 421 fragmentation 435 functions of 434 High 272, 275, 413 minority 421

official languages 423 special role 422, 423 structural approach 43, 110

supralocalisation 288, 291, 292, 293, 294 vernacular 272

working language 423 world language 426

written and spoken 29, 201, 220, 275, 369 language community 287

language contact 109, 187, 421, 435 language death 224, 246, 247

Lass, Roger 43–108, 309, 380, 415 standardisation 275, 306, 360

Latin 6, 8, 248, 282

and Celtic 225

contribution to English lexicon 15–16 government and administrative terms 338 and personal names 322

role of in England 59, 247, 271–2 speakers of 8

Vulgar and Classical 220, 221 written language 271

League of Nations 427 Lederer, R. M. 385 van der Leek, F. 164 Le Page, R. B. 266 Lehmann, W. P. 5

Leisi, E. 256, 266 letter writing 33 Levins, Peter 94 lexical items 199–200

complex 206, 208, 209, 219 dt/dm sequence 209, 210 function of 206

simple 206 lexical relations 205

lexical structures 205–6 Lieberson, S. 321, 323, 324

Lightfoot, D. W. 130, 147–9, 151, 185

Lindisfarne Gospels 70, 359

Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English (LAEME) 61, 102

Linguistic Atlas of England (LAE) 374 Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English

(LALME) 102, 293, 362–3, 368

Linguistic Atlas of the United States and Canada

388

linguistic atlas projects 399 Lipka, L. 205

literacy 32, 256, 290, 306, 377 Litteral Substitution Sets 63 Lively, P. 310

London 18, 292 importance of 18, 25, 86

London English 295, 387

Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English 297, 298, 301

Longobardi, G. 314 Los, B. 175

Louis XIV 258

Lowth, Robert 101, 283, 284, 285 Luther, Martin 47

Lyons, J. 205

Machyn, Henry 369

MacMahon, M. K. C. 106, 307, 376

Macquarie University 336

Maddison, A. 21

Mallory, J. P. 5

Marchand, H. 214, 244, 261

compound verbs 242

compounds 210, 215, 253, 255

prefixes and suffixes 251

word formation 208, 213

zero derivation 211

Marckwardt, A. H. 395

Maxwell, James Clerk 305

McArthur, T. 421, 435, 436, 438

McClure, J. D. 360, 380

McClure, P. 325, 326, 332

McDavid, R. I. 399

McIntosh, A. 103, 293, 362

McKinley, R. 328, 330, 331, 334

McQueen, J. 323 McWhorter, J. H. 16, 141 meanings, new 40–1 Meech, S. B. 361 Meillet, A. 5

Mencken, H. L. 392 Mercia 10 Mesthrie, R. 433

methodology 7, 362, 378, 379

Middle English 2, 35, 48, 59–81, 94, 359–65 adjectives 95, 122, 126

adverbial clauses 180 articles 117

borrowing 222, 246, 251

from French 15, 249–50, 254 from Latin 250, 254

from Scandinavian 249 case 164

consonants 91–4

palatals and palatisation 93 postvocalic /r/ 91-2

/x/ 65–6, 93-4 dialects 361–2 diphthongs 61, 88 do 155

evidence, historical 360, 362, 365 exploratory expressions 150

French loanwords 168, 224, 247, 248, 360, 364

gender 71 genitive 119, 120

impersonal constructions 167 infinitive 80–1, 149, 175 inflection 116, 118, 129, 255 innovation 364

lexical fields 248 loan words 222

Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening 64 modal markers

mood 145, 150 morphology 69–70, 81, 212 nouns 70–2, 252–3

null dummy subjects 161 number 69

objects 165

participles 80–1, 138, 177 particles and adverbs 192 passive voice 153, 169, 173, 174 phonology 63–70

‘dropping aitches’ 65–6, 94 fricative voice contrast 62 loss of final -e 66–7

place-names 339 plurals 71

prepositional stranding 196, 198 progressive 136

pronouns 72–5, 96, 97, 364 pro-drop 162

‘she’ 363

Scandinavian influence 224, 360, 364 spelling 62–3

standardisation 248, 273 stress 67–9, 251–2 tense 69, 76–8

future tense 133, 150 past tense 131, 134, 141

perfect tense 132, 139, 150 texts 35

that-clauses 171 verbs 75–6, 78–9 ‘to be’ 79–80

periphrastic constructions 133, 158 person and number 78–9 pre-modals 148, 150, 151 verb-second sentences 184–5

vocabulary 204, 246–55, 364

vowels 61–2, 63–5, 69, 78, 84–91, 105 /a/ 85–6

before liquids 90–1 /ɔ/ 86

/i/, /u/ and /o / 84–5 /iu/, /eu/ 88

Lengthening I and II 89–90, 104–8 monophthongisation and merger 86–7 long mid-vowels and /a / 87–8

/oi, ui/ and /i / 88-9 wh-relative 128–9

word formation 227, 250–5 adjective compounds 253–4 compound verbs 254 compounding 253

loss of patterns 252 native-based 250 noun compounds 253 prefixation 251, 254 stem-based 250, 251 suffixation 254–5 zero derivation 255

word order 124, 186, 189, 190, 192

Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening 63–5, 67

Mikelson, K. S. 321, 324 Miles, J. 347

Miller, J. 139 Mills, A. D. 335 Mills, D. 335

Milroy, J. 39, 286, 288, 292, 379 standardisation 273–4, 285, 288, 292

Milroy, L. 39, 273–4, 285, 286 Minkova, D. 85, 252 Mitchell, B. 134, 165 Mitchell, Margaret 323

Mittins, M. H. 286 Mizobata, K. 279, 289, 301

Modern English 3, 35–6, 81–104, 310, 370–82 adjectives 95–6

adverbial clauses 180 borrowing 267

from Arabic 267 from French 267 from India 267 from Italian 267 from Scots 267 from Spanish 267

case 51–2 consonants 50, 91–4 dialects 370–4, 376 fricatives 62

gender 52

gerund and present participle 80 history of 104–8

inflection 51–2 innovation 378

loss of postvocalic /r/ 91–2 monophthongisation and merger 86–7 morphology 51–2, 95–104, 375 nouns 95–6

number 52 objects 165

palatals and palatalisation 93 periphrasis 95

phonology 52

pronouns 96–8, 375, 376 pronunciation 376–8 stress 51, 94–5 suffixation 95, 96, 213 syntax 375–6

tense and aspect 52 texts 35–6

verbs 98–104 vocabulary 266–70, 375 vowels 48–50, 59, 90–1

contrastive vowel length 49 Lengthening I 89–90, 92, 104–6 Lengthening II 106–8

word-formation 208, 211, 268–70 acronyms 270

blending 269 clipping 269 compounding 268 prefixation 268–9 suffixation 269

Moerenhout, M. 187 Montgomery, M. 388, 399 Moore, S. 361 Moralejo-G´arate, T. 165 morphology 43–108, 212

derivational 17

Middle English 69–81 stem-based 212 word-based 212

Morrill, J. S. 25 Morton, H. C. 299

motion pictures 34–5, 429 Mufwene, S. S. 410 Mugglestone, L. 307, 371 Mulcaster, R. 93 multilingualism 435 Murray, Lindley 285, 431 Murray, T. E. 335 Mustanoja, T. 118

names 315, 351

bestowal of 313, 315–16 compound 314

function of 313 inflection 315

onomastics 312, 314, 317–18, 350 confraternity books 318 discipline of 317

source materials of 317–18 Onymic Default Principle 313 personal names 315, 318–27

earliest 319–20 elements of 319, 320 fashion in choice of 323

foreign influences 320, 321, 322, 323 impact of the Norman Conquest 320–1 influence of popular music and films 324 male and female 321, 324

modern 322–4, 325 monothematic and dithematic 319 Old Testament 322

pet-names (hypocoristics) 325–6, 327, 333

and Puritanism 322 recent trends 324–5

Renaissance and Reformation 321–2 Scottish or Irish 323

social psychology of 317 surnames 325, 326, 327–35

place-names 314, 335–50, 361 context of 336–8 descriptive 340

elements of 341–3, 344, 391 English-language 340–5 explanation of 338–40 French names 349–50 house names 346–7

inversion compounds 338, 348–9 languages other than English 347–50 modifiers in 344–5

postmodification by a recording of 349

names (cont.) rivers 336

Scandinavian 338, 348, 349 in Scotland 345 settlements 337, 344 street-names 345–6 surnames and 344

and urban history 345–7 proper names 312–15, 316–17 spelling 317

surnames 325, 326, 327–9, 330, 335 after 1500 334–5

by-names 330

derived from family relationships 330, 332–3 derived from locations 329, 332

derived from occupational terms 330, 333–4 descriptive 329, 331–2

double-barrelled 334

from languages other than English 334 linguistic nature of 331–4

origin of 327–8 types of 329–31

women’s 328, 334, 335 tropes 316–17

Nares, Robert 93, 94 vowels 89, 90, 91

Native Americans 384–5, 399 negation 112, 124, 157–8, 193, 397

multiple 292, 295 negative contraction 357 Scots 381

Neo-Latin/Greek Internationalisms 303 Neogrammarian movement 353, 356, 371 Nevalainen, T. 261, 271–98

social factors 25, 39 verbs 102, 185, 252

New Fowler’s Modern English Usage 297, 299, 310

New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary 300 New York City Standard English 107

New York English 41

New Zealand 23, 41, 309, 432 newspapers 32

Nicolaisen, W. F. H. 336, 345, 349 nominalisation 207

non-rhotic dialects 41, 91, 327

Norman Conquest 12, 14, 16, 59, 225, 271, 272 impact on personal names 320–1, 327 writing systems following 31

North America, English in 384–418 Canada: see Canada

colonial period 384–91 identifying accents in 388 immigration 386–7 maintenance and change 385–6 mixing of languages in 389

in the modern period 396–418 National Period 391–6

New England terms 385 origins of 387–90 place-names 390–1 prescriptivism 393–4 settlements 386-7 Southern terms 385

Northern Cities Shift 41, 49, 405–6, 408, 411, 413

Northern present-tense rule 103 Northern subject rule 375–6 Northumbria 10, 355

noun compounds 396–7 with adjectives 232 with adverbs 233

with a linking element and a noun 231–2 with a noun 229–33

types of 229-30

verbal and non-verbal 231 with participles 233

with three lexemes 231 with a verb 232–3

noun phrase 110-29, 398 dative 195 determiners 116–21 genitive 118

head noun 114–16 modifiers 122–9 word order in 114

nouns

collective 396 as modifiers 125

and place-names 339 proper nouns 314

Oakden, J. P. 361

objects 113, 164–6, 188–90 direct 166

indirect 166 that-clauses 171 who as 297

Ogura, M. 187

Old English 2, 48, 353-9 adjectival derivatives 244 adjectives 95, 122, 123–4, 125

compound 233–4 inflection 56, 72, 115–16

adverbial clauses 180 adverbs 145, 180 articles 55, 117

borrowing 217, 220, 222, 224–5 case 55, 163

Celtic influence 225–6 consonants 54 cultural contact 224

determiners 56

dialects 217, 218, 356, 358, 361 Anglian 358

diachronic evolution of 356, 357 diocesan boundaries 358 Kentish 355

Mercian 355 Northumbrian 355, 357

diaphasic variation 218 diminutives 240 diphthongs 53 evidence, historical 358

exploratory expressions 130 French influence 62

gender 55, 70 genitive 119 and German 47 gerunds 80, 178 history of 44

indicative mood 142 inflection 56

influence of Christianity 220, 222, 226 interrogatives 128

Latin influence 217, 220, 221, 222, 246 lexical families 217, 218

loan creation 202, 216, 222, 223 loan-renditions 223 loan-translation 215, 222, 223 modifiers, finite and non-finite 126 mood 143, 145

morphology 55–8, 212, 227, 245 nominal derivatives 243–4 nouns

compounds 229–33 noun paradigms 55 noun phrase 55–6, 70

objects 164, 186

particles and adverbs 191–2

passive voice 152, 153, 169, 170, 173 periphrastic constructions 133 phonology 224, 357

place-names 338, 339, 340, 341 pre-modals 148, 149 predicative phrases 145 prefixes 54, 236–7 prepositional stranding 195, 198 prepositions 223

present participle 137–8 progressive 135–6

pronouns 56, 72, 96, 186, 223 pro-drop 162

wh-pronouns 128 relative clauses 127

Scandinavian influence 223–5 semantic fields 217

sound change 359

stress 54–5, 67 subjects 161, 162

subjunctive 130, 131, 142, 145 suffixes 238–42, 252

syntactic variation 357 tense 75, 132, 140 texts 35, 52–3

transition to Middle English 59–62 verbs 57–8, 151, 166, 167, 191

be 79–80 compound 235–46 inflection 78–9 have 158 morphology 75–6 prefixes 236-7 suffixes 238–42

verb-second sentences 182–4 vocabulary 204, 216–26, 246, 358 voiced fricatives 54

vowels 53, 61, 63, 69, 357

West Saxon dialect 355, 357, 358 negative contraction 357 vocabulary 358

word formation 208, 217, 220, 226–46, 358

adjectival suffixes 241–2 adverbs 245

compounds 228, 229–33, 235–46 prefixation 228

stem-allomorphy 227 stem-formatives 238 stress 227 suffixation 228, 238

suprasegmental alternation 227 typological status of 245–6 zero derivation 242–3

word order 189, 194 writing system 30–1

Oldmixon, John 283 onomastics 312

Onymic Default Principle 313 open syllable lengthening 64 Orm 273, 360

Ormulum 66, 71, 72 orthoepists 36

Orton, H. S. 295, 372, 374 Osselson, N. E. 290 Owun 359

Oxford English Dictionary 1, 202, 256, 266, 299, 300, 393, 435

historical bias of 300 Oxford Movement 323 Oxinden, Henry

Padel, O. J. 335

Page, R. I. 30

Pahta, P. 281 Palsgrave, J. 256 paper 32

parchment and vellum 30, 35 Parker, G. 427

Parry, D. 382 Parsons, D. 335, 348

passive voice 152, 166, 168–71 indirect 169

past participle 57

Paston family letters 290, 295, 352, 368–9 Pederson, L. 398, 399

periphrastic constructions 130, 137, 139, 141, 144, 150

Pesetsky, D. 166

Peterborough Chronicle 14, 63, 72, 78, 271 Peters, H. 224–5

Philological Society 371 phonology 47–8

basis for 48

changes in 46, 50, 59–60, 62 consonants 91–4

Great Vowel Shift 81–3 Modern English 52

and morphology 43–108 and place-names 339 vowels 60–2

Phua Chu Kang 433

pidgin languages 16, 424, 436 Pintzuk, S. 183, 186

Piroth, W. 336

place-names: see under names Plag, I. 260

Plank, F. 147, 149, 164

Poema morale 76

poetry 35, 217, 218, 219, 272, 355 kennings 219

word order 187 Pogatscher’s Line 356–7 politics 427

Poole, Joshua 284 Pope, Alexander 88, 323 Poppe, E. 136

popular music 324, 429–30 population 27

postal system 32, 33 Postles, D. 330 Pound, L. 269 Poussa, P. 8, 16, 223

power 18, 21, 426, 427 prefixation 210, 235

prepositional stranding 113, 193–8 prepositions 398

present-day English 3 adverbial clauses 180 articles 116

determiners 120, 121 genetive phrases 118 mood 145

noun phrase 114 null dummy subjects object 188 participles 178

passive voice 168, 170 relative clauses 127 subject 161

tense 131, 133, 136, 139, 140–1 that-clauses 171–2

vowels 65 word order 114

Preston, Dennis 309, 395, 404 Preusler, W. 8

printing 32, 256, 277–9 and personal names 321

and spelling 282, 289, 290 standardisation and 248, 293, 311, 367

Prokosch, E. 353 pronouns 296, 297

de-cliticisation of 113, 185 demonstrative 127–8 dropping of 162

indefinite 121, 296 Middle English 72–5 modifiers of 115

in noun phrases 115 plurals 74–5 possessive 119 Pronoun Exchange 376 relative 128

Scandinavian paradigm 75 she 73, 74

Shetland theory 74 thou 375

pronunciation 306–10, 311, 376, 387 fricatives 50, 54, 62, 370

Proto-Indo-European 55 Puttenham, George 306, 367 Pynson, Richard 289

quantifiers 111

Quirk, R. 179, 201, 217, 297, 426

Raftery, D. 290 railways 24–5 Ramsaran, Susan 308 Ramsay, David 389–90 Raper, P. E. 336

Raumolin-Brunberg, H. 25, 39, 102, 290, 296 Ray, John 371

Rayburn, A. 336

Read, A. W. 388, 389, 392 Reaney, P. H. 330

Received Pronunciation 29, 107, 289, 300, 307 varieties of 308

recording media 34 Reformation 20, 28, 321–2 register 2, 217, 281, 289

diachronic evolution of 304 specialist 304, 310

spoken and written 296, 297 and standardisation 303–6 variation in 15, 311

relative clauses 127–8, 397 relative markers 296 Renaissance 27–8, 281, 321–2 Renfrew, C. 5

Reuter, Paul Julius 428 rhotic dialects 25, 41, 91, 377 rhymes and puns 36 Richardson, Samuel 299, 323 Rickford, J. R. 411

Riddle, E. M. 260 Ringe, O. 16

Rissanen, M. 120, 121, 266, 287, 296, 304 Ritt, N. 60

Roach, Peter 308 Roberts, I. 130, 188, 193 Robinson, K. 323 Romaine, S. 288, 309

Romance languages 68, 208, 323 Romance Stress Rule 68, 69, 94 Romans, occupation of Britian 10, 220 Room, A. 336, 345–6

Rosenbach, A. 119 Royal Court 295 Royal Society 281, 305

Rule of St Benet 184

Rushworth texts 358, 359 Ruthwell Cross 365 Ryan, K. 420

safety regimens, English in 430 Salmon, V. 290

Samuels, M. L. 275, 354, 362 Sanskrit 6

Savory, T. 303

Saxons 9, 226

Scandinavian influence 11, 12, 14–16, 74, 248 names 348, 349

word order 184, 185, 187 verbs 16, 141

Schabram, H. 218 Sch¨afer, J. 266 Schama, S. 347

Scheler, M. 203, 217, 301 Schendl, H. 103, 104 Schneider, E. 297, 438 Schwartz, R. M. 24

science 27, 301–3 Scotland 20, 25, 151, 366

dialects 365–7, 380 English place-names in 345 French loanwords 20, 366 Gaelic language 20, 366 language 360, 437 negation 381

syntax 381

Scott, Sir Walter 267, 323

Scragg, D. G. 280–1, 282, 289, 290 Seaspeak 430

Sebba , M. 383 Second World War 26 Semenza, C. 312 Serjeantson, M. S. 220

Shakespeare, W. 32, 104, 162, 282 compounds 261

grammar 162, 164, 297 Inkhorn Controversy 280, 281 names 321, 323

neologisms 256 rhymes 87, 102

Shearer, B. 24

Sheridan, Thomas 91, 257, 307, 367

Shorter Oxford English Dictionary 266 Shuman, R. B. 286

Sidney, Sir Philip 323 Siegel, J. 433

Simon, J. 285

Singapore 433 Singlish 433, 434 Sisam, K. 366 Smart, V. 318 Smith, A. H. 335

Smith, J. J. 287, 289, 368 Smith, P. 387

social prestige and language 15, 16, 38 social structures 13, 15, 105

sociolinguistic methods 41, 362, 379, 420, 422, 436

Sørensen, K. 282

South Africa 23, 25, 309

Southern Shift 406–7, 408 Spanish influence 267, 384 speech communities 199, 200, 201 spelling 276, 291, 426

changes in 282 occasional 36

private writing and 290 reform of 85, 289, 290 regularisation 289

spelling pronunciation 94, 281 standardisation of 32, 273, 289–91,

310

of surnames 331

Spenser, Edmund 93, 279, 323 spoken word, transmission of 33 Sprat, Thomas 281–2

Standard British 307, 309 standard English 273, 300, 434

development of 274–87 codification 307

elaboration of functions 301, 304, 306 focussed 288

genre-specific styles 304 grammar 303, 310 influence of dialects 378 loss of postvocalic /r/ 377 pronouns 292

verb phrase 291–2 vocabulary 303 written 301

standard Scottish 308

standardisation 99, 107, 271–98, 367, 369, 433, 438

acceptance stage 275–6 belief in 285 codification stage 282–4 definition of 273

and dialects 377 diffusion stage 276–7 effects of 377

elaboration of function stage 279–82, 304, 306

and focussing 288 goal of 288 grammar 291–9

institutional support for 274, 275, 276, 282, 283, 287, 292, 310

maintenance stage 277–9, 385–6 prescription stage 284–6 processes of 289

pronunciation 306–10, 311 registers 303–6 requirements for 310 selection stage 274–5 spelling 289–91, 310 stages of 273

vocabulary 299–303

of written language 39, 297, 360 Stanley, E. G. 219

Stanyhurst, Richard 382

Steele, Sir Richard 323 Stein, G. 268

Stevens, P. 430 Stewart, G. R. 336

Stockwell, R. P. 82, 85, 252 Strang, Barbara xiii, 136, 221, 359 stress 17, 51, 238

Middle English 67–9 morphology and 51

Old English 54–5, 227 secondary 51

Strom,¨ H. 319

subjects 112, 160–4, 170 empty 161, 163, 167, 168 as experiencer 166, 168 subject predicatives 163 that-clauses 171

subjunctive 130, 141, 142, 144, 145 Middle English 145, 150

Old English 145

subordinate clauses 171–81, 182 adverbial 180–1

infinitival clauses 172–7 with an ing-participle 177–9 that-clauses 171–2

suffixation 119, 210, 238–42 supralocalisation 288, 291, 292, 293, 294

Survey of English Dialects 373–4, 375 Survey of English Place-Names 335 Sutcliffe, D. 383

Svensson, A.-M. 341

Sweet, Henry 105, 106, 307, 353, 355, 371 Swift, Jonathan 214, 283, 323

syntax 109–13, 159 clauses 160–81 noun phrase 110–29 verbs 129–60

word order 181–98

Taavitsainen, I. 281 Taylor, A. 16, 184, 187 technical terms 301, 306 television 34 Tengstrand, E. 344

Tennyson, Alfred, Lord 323 texts, historical 35–6 Thomas, A. R. 365, 382 Thomas, R. C. 270 Thomason, S. G. 16 Thompson, S. A. 166

Three Hunderd Years’ War 20 Tieken-Boon van Ostade, I. 271–98, 431 to-infinitival clauses 180

Todd, L. 397

Toronto Dictionary of Old English 35 transportation 18, 24–5, 32

Traugott, Elizabeth 41, 132

Treaty of Wedmore 11, 224 Tristram, H. L. C. 8 Trisyllabic Laxing 252 Trudgill, P.

dialects 371, 374, 376, 381 focussing 287

grammar of Standard English 291, 292 phonology 409

Pronoun Exchange 376 Received Pronunciation 308, 309 regional varieties 298 sociolinguistics 379

Tucker, Abraham 85, 92 Turville-Petre, T. 365

Uniformitarian Hypothesis 8 Union of the Crowns 20

United Empire Loyalists 391, 414 United Nations 423

United States 25, 29 economic status 21, 24, 26 immigration 394, 399 languages spoken 22 population 22, 392, 396 pronunciation 309

see also American English and North America, English in

univerbation 197 universities 20, 247 urbanisation 24, 377, 378

ValSpeak 42

van Buren, Martin 391 van Lancker, D. 312

variation, linguistic 37, 43–6 Velar Softening 252

verbal phrase 110, 129–60 verbs 129–60

ablaut series 57, 204 anomalous 58, 98–101 aspect 111, 135–42 auxiliary 148, 151, 158–60 classes 57–8

compound 235–45, 246 derivation of 243–4 prefixes 236–7 suffixes 235, 238–42

do 154–8

gan/gangan ‘to go’ 203 have 140

light verb combinations 165 modal 143, 158, 398

double 151–2, 158, 159, 381, 382–3 mood 112, 142–4, 146

Northern present-tense rule 103 past participle 153

periphrastic constructions 130, 137, 139, 141, 144, 150, 156, 158

person and number 78–9 phrasal 113

plurals 78 pre-modals 147 present tense 134

preterite tense 139, 140, 149

progressive 138

strong 57, 58, 77–8, 99 grade reduction 77, 98

tense 52, 75, 76–8, 112, 131–5 future markers 132, 133, 138, 296 past 134

perfect 139, 140, 141 third-person -s ending 101–4 ‘to be’ 58, 79–80, 141, 142 verbal complementation 149 verbal prhase 129–60

voice 112, 152–4, 168–71 weak 57–8, 76–7, 238

Vercelli Book 355

Vespasian Psalter 359 Vikings, invasions of Britian 11 Visser, F. Th. 138, 148, 149 Vennemann, T. 8

vocabulary 257, 270

associated and dissociated 203, 257 changes in 200, 201–4, 213, 215–16 compounds 209

core 301, 303, 310

Early Modern English 256 expansion of 270, 279

formal-morphological structures 205–6 French influence 248, 271

growth pattern 266 history of 202

languages that have contributed 203 Latin influence 248

learned and technical 256 lexical change 201–4 lexical structures 204–6 lexicalisation 210

loan creation 216 loan translation 215

Middle English 246–55

Modern English 266–70 Old English 216–46 scientific 266, 268 semantic structures 205 size of 208 standardisation 299–303

stratification of 201, 217–20 taboo and 216

technical terms 256, 261, 266 vowels 49, 61, 84–8, 91

bird vowel 49

homorganic lengthening 60, 77 lengthening and shortening of 246 Lengthening I 104–6 Lengthening II 106–8

lot vowel 49 low 60–1

Middle English breaking 61

vowels (cont.)

pre-cluster shortening 60 trisyllabic shortening 60

Walker, John

pronunciation dictionary 90, 92, 307 vowels 90, 104

Wallenberg, J. K. 335 Wallis, John 83

Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae 284 postvocalic /r/ 92

pronouns 96 verbs 99

vowels 85, 86, 88 Wallmannsberger, J. 16 Walter of Bibbesworth 248 war, effect on English 25–7 Ward, Ida 105

Wareing, J. 293

Warner, A. 130, 146, 147, 149, 150, 159–60 grammaticalisation 160

Wars of the Roses 25 Watts, V. E. 335 Weale, M. E. 10 Webster, Noah 392–3

codification of American English 273, 309, 393

spelling 32, 393 Weeks, F. 430 Weerman, F. 187

Wells, John 91, 106, 380, 383

Longman Pronunciation Dictionary 308, 309

Welsh English 382 Wenisch, F. 218 Wenkler, Georg 371 Wessex 11

West Saxon dialect 35, 246, 271, 355 Westminster 18

Whaley, L. J. 421

White, D. L. 136

White, Richard Grant 393–4 Whitehall, H. 361 Williams, J. M. 220 Williams, Roger 387 Wilson, S. 321

Wolff, D. 256, 266 Wolfson, N. 134 Woolf, Virginia 46 Worcester, Joseph 309

Worcester Tremulous Script 71, 73 word formation 17, 203, 205

adverbs 245 affixation 210, 212

bahuvrihi compounds 215, 229 blending 214

categories of 210 clipping 213–14

back-clipping 269 change, language 269

clipping compounds 269–70 fore-clipping 269

comparison 208

compound adjectives 233–4 compound verbs 235–46

adjectival derivatives 244 adverbs 245

dt/dm sequence 209 inseparable and separable 235 nominal derivatives 243–4 prefixation 235

verbal derivation 244 verbal prhase 242

compounds 210, 212 conversion 210, 211 derivations 214, 242 expansions 214, 242 functional classification of 214 nominalisation 207

noun compounds 228, 253, 268 copulative 261

sex-denoting types 253 phonetic symbolism 213 prefixation 210

attitudinal 262–3 intensifying 263 locative 262 negative prefixes 261 pejorative 263 privative 261–2 quantitative 263 reversative 261–2 temporal 262

principles of 206–15 processes of 213 stem-based 245 suffixation 210

adjective-forming 264–5 noun-forming 263–4 verb-forming 265

and syntactic constructions 209, 210 syntactic recategorisation 206 word-based 245

word manufacturing 214

zero derivation 211, 220, 242–3 word order 109, 124, 139, 156, 173,

181–98

changes in 181, 193–8

decline in the use of verb-second sentences 184-5

direct and indirect objects 188–90 fixation of 156–7