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4.4.3 |
Word formation |
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As has already been pointed out, it was during the early Modern English period that non-native word-formation patterns finally gained a real foothold in English and began to compete seriously with the native patterns. This is in line with the general explosion in the size of the vocabulary thanks to nearly unconstrained borrowing, which in turn provided many more analysable examples on the basis of which new formations could be produced that had no counterpart in the source languages. In the present context, a more detailed discussion of this process is impossible. What we can say, however, is that the Middle English loan patterns mentioned above were strengthened, and if they had not already been productive on a limited scale they now finally became productive, with some more affixes added to the already existing stock. This of course also affected the overall structure of the word-formation system, because this development introduced increased competition between patterns (see Kastovsky, 1985). This competition not only concerned the rivalry between native affixes (fore-, mid-, un-; -dom, -ed, -en, -er, -ful, -hood, -ing, -ish, -less, -let, -like, -ling, -ness, -ship, zero) and non-native affixes (ante-, circum-, dis-, extra-, in-, inter-, non-, post-, pre-, re-, sub-, super-, trans-; -able, -acy, -age, -al, -an, -ance, -ancy, -ant, -arian, -ate, -ation, -ee, -eer, -ery, -ese, -ic, -ical, -ician, -ify, -ise, -ism, -ist,
-ment, -ory, -ous, -ure), but also between the non-native affixes themselves. Thus, to give just one example, Old English had had only one productive negative prefix, viz. un-, as in un-w¯ıs. In Middle and early Modern English four competing non-native prefixes were added: a-, dis-, in-, non-, which now competed with un- and among themselves. This situation in fact persists till today and, despite the work of Aronoff (1980), Anshen & Aronoff (1988), Baayen (1989), Plag (1999), Riddle (1985) and some others, is still in need of a more thorough investigation, especially as regards the gradually emerging semantic and distributional restrictions. In early Modern English we often find rivalling forms from one and the same basis, e.g. frequency frequentness, immaturity immatureness, immediacy immediateness; light/Ø lighten enlighten; disthronise disthrone/Ø
dethrone/Ø dethronise unthrone/Ø. Eventually one of the forms survived, whereas the others were discarded, or else some semantic differentiation took place. Again, the rivalry of these competing patterns and their sorting-out in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries are in need of further empirical investigation, especially with regard to their distribution among text types and the influence of prescriptive grammar.
Another consequence of this development is the consolidation of the nonnative level of word formation with its morphophonemic alternations and stembased properties. There was great variation during this period, some of which still persists, and a more systematic investigation of the rise, implementation and systematisation of these patterns is still needed.
4.4.3.1Compounding
In general, the compound types described in the sections above continued to be productive. But there were also changes. Thus there seems to have
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been a revival of the copulative compounds in literary language of the type giantdwarf, king-cardinal, master-mistress, sober-sad, pale-dull (Shakespeare), from where they made their way into technical language in the seventeenth century, e.g. hydraulo-pneumatical, anatomic-chirurgical. Another revival, beginning in the sixteenth century, is the type all-seer, all-creator, self-seeker, all-affecting, all-knowing, self-boasting, self-giving. Another innovation is the adjectival type
Anglo-Norman, concavo-convex, medical-physical, which is partly non-native.
4.4.3.2Prefixation
It was during this period that the majority of the foreign prefixes still productive today became productive on a larger scale or entered the language, although hybrid formations (non-native prefix + native base) seem to have been relatively constrained. A comprehensive survey is not possible here, but certain sense groups might be quoted in the following, based on Marchand (1969: 140– 208) and Nevalainen (1999: 379–91).
Negative prefixes
un- had originally been the only native suffix in this domain, expressing complementary and contrary opposition with adjectives and nouns:
(a)adjectives: unfit, ungodly, uncommon, uncomfortable, unfashionable, unEnglish, uncritical, unbecoming, undeserving, uncome-at-able, unheardof, uncared-for; unboundless, uncomfortless, unhelpless (the latter from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, now unacceptable)
(b)nouns: uncharity, ungratitude, unsuccess, unintelligence, unsatisfaction, unconcern
non- originated in Law Latin and Law French; later it was extended beyond the legal domain: non-ability, non-appearance, non-performance, non-resident, non-user, non-knowledge, non-truth; non-harmonious, non-graduated, nonpreaching
in- (French and Latin) is basically restricted to non-native bases; it also exhibits morphophonemic alternation (assimilation): inanimate, inextinguishable, inseparate, illegal, illegitimate, irresponsible; incivility, incompetence, inhospitality, inutility
dis- (French and Latin): discontent, dispassionate, disadvantageous, dissimilar, disharmonious, discontinuous, disrespectful; distrust, disorder, disfavour, disregard
a- (Greek): atheological, asymbolic, apsychical, asymmetric
Reversative and privative prefixes un- is the only native prefix in this domain:
(a)reversative: unbewitch, unbless, unconsecrate, undress, unfreeze, unmarry (sixteenth century), unblock, unlink, unmount, uncanonise, undignify, uncoil, unhitch, unlay, unstow
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(b)privative/ablative: unballast, unburden, uncloak, unfrock, unman, unnerve (‘remove object’); unbosom, uncage, unhinge, unhook, unkennel (‘remove from place’)
dis- (French and Latin):
(a)reversative: disentangle, dishearten, discompose, disappear, disestablisih, disinfect, disunite, disassociate, discanonise, disarrange, disconnect, disqualify
(b)privative/ablative: disburden, discloud, dismast, dismerit, dispriviledge, disrank, distune (‘remove object’); displace, dishouse, discase, disbar
(‘remove from place’)
de- (French and Latin) becomes productive only in the eighteenth century, gradually restricting dis-formations: debark, demast, deobstruct, detomb, dethrone, detruth
Locative prefixes
a-(native, < on): ajar, atilt, adrift, agape, astride, aflame, ahorseback, ashore, a-tiptoe
fore- (native): forename, forecourt, forehand, foregound, forearm, foreshore mid- (native): mid-channel, mid-earth, mid-finger, mid-ship
inter- (French, Latin): interlink, intermix, intermarry, interlock, intertwine; interspeech, intermark; interlunar, interstellar, intermundane
sub- (Latin): sub-constable, sub-head, sub-treasurer, sub-officer, subcommittee, subspecies; sub-coastal, sublingual, subspinal; sublet
super- (Latin): superstructure, superimposition; superordinate, superterranean trans- (Latin): transnature, transdialect; translocation; transsubstantial, translu-
nary
Temporal prefixes
fore- (native): foreappoint, forbear, foreshadow, forebode, foreact, foregame, forenight
mid- (native): midnoon, midnight, mid-week, mid-season ante- (Latin): antediluvian, ante-theme, antedate, ante-noon
post- (Latin): post-date, post-eternity, post-date (vb); post-exist, postmeridian, post-deluvian
pre- (Latin): preconceive, pre-elect, precontract, prejudge, premeditate, preequipment, predisposition, pre-existence, prearrangement
re- (French, Latin): reassume, reconsider, reinforce, re-examine, reappear, recast, refill
Prefixes denoting opposition and support (‘attitudinal prefixes’) anti- (Latin): antipope, anticlimax, antimonarchical, antipapal, antifebrile, anti-
catarrhal
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counter- (French): counterbalance, counterpart, counterplea, counterplot
co- (French, Latin): coheir, co-defendant, co-juror, co-agency, co-existence, coarticulate, co-work, co-extensive, co-infinite
pro- (Latin): pro-rector, pro-vice-chancellor
Pejorative prefixes
mal- (French): maladministration, malconduct
mis- (native and French mes-): misapply, mishandle; misfortune, miscarriage, misconduct
pseudo- (Greek): pseudo-Catholic, pseudo-politician
Intensifying prefixes arch- (Greek, Latin): archbishop
hyper- (Greek): hyper-prophetical, hyper-magnetic proto- (Latin): protoplot, protodevil, protorebel sub- (Latin): sub-red, sub-angelical, sub-rustic
Quantitative prefixes
bi- (Latin): bicapited, bicapsular, biforked, bilobed
demi- (French): demigod, demi-lion, demicannon, demi-quaver multi- (Latin): multivarious, multicapsular
4.4.3.3Suffixation
With suffixation the pattern is similar: the majority of the early Modern English suffixes are of non-native origin, although they perhaps were not as productive as the native ones. At least some of them already made their appearance in Middle English, but started to become productive on a larger scale only in the early Modern English period. In the following I will concentrate on borrowed suffixes, since the patterns characterising the surviving native suffixes have already been illustrated above.
Noun-forming suffixes
-acy (French and Latin, deadjectival and denominal abstract nouns): accuracy, illiteracy, intimacy, curacy, piracy, magistracy
-age (French, abstract and collective denominal and deverbal nouns; result, location): baronetage, orphanage, leafage, mileage, parsonage, vicarage; anchorage, drainage, leakage, postage, storage, sweepage
-al (French, deverbal abstract nouns): approval, bestowal, carousal, denial, disposal, proposal, recital, removal, renewal, survival
-an/-ian (French and Latin, denominal and deadjectival nouns and adjectives):
Cantabrigian, Chaucerian, Devonian, Etonian, Norwegian, Oxonian -ance/-ence (French, deverbal abstract nouns): admittance, appliance, bearance,
clearance, convergence, emergence, guidance, reliance, remittance
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-ancy/-ency (French, deadjectival and denominal abstract nouns): agency, brilliancy, consistency, deceny, deficiency, efficiency, redundancy, tendency, vacancy
-ant/-ent (French and Latin, personal and instrumental nouns): absorbent, attendant, claimant, defendant, dependant, illuminant, solvent
-arian (Latin, denominal nouns and adjectives): sectarian, septuagenarian, Trinitarian
-ate (Latin, abstract nouns): episcopate, electorate, patriarchate, tribunate, triumvirate
-ation (French, Latin, abstract nouns): amplification, beautification, identification, authorisation, formalisation, affiliation, education, flirtation, intimidation, starvation
-ee (French, personal passive nouns): debtee, donee, grantee, mortgagee, payee, trustee
-eer (French, personal nouns): privateer, pamphleteer, sonneteer (mainly derogatory)
-ery (French, abstract and collective nouns, location): bigotry, brewery, fishery, foolery, ironmongery, peasantry, printery, rivalry, slavery, soldiery, swannery
-ese (Italian, denominal nouns and adjectives): Genoese, Milanese, Siamese -ess (French, female nouns): actress, ambassadress, farmeress, heiress, murder-
ess, poetess
-ician (French, personal nouns): dialectician, geometrician, mechanician, politician
-ism (Latin and French, abstract nouns): anglicism, criticism, modernism, Protestantism, truism, witticism
-ist (Latin and French, personal nouns and adjectives): bigamist, duellist, egotist, flutist, non-conformist, novelist ‘innovator’, tobacconist ‘one addicted to tobacco’
-ity (French and Latin, deadjectival abstract nouns): brutality, capability, compatibility, eccentricity, elasticity, oddity, regularity, similarity
-let (French, diminutive): droplet, ringlet, streamlet, townlet, winglet
-ment (French, abstract and concrete nouns): abasement, amusement, astonishment, commitment, equipment, fulfilment, management, retirement, statement, treatment
-ure (French, abstract nouns): closure, erasure, exposure, pressure
-y/-ie (Scottish, hypocoristic): brownie, Charlie, daddy, granny, hubby, jockey, kitty, laddie
Adjective-forming suffixes
Here, native suffixes have maintained their position and are fairly productive:
-ed (roofed, spirited, pig-headed), -en (earthen, milken), -ful (deceitful, hopeful), -ish (Cornish, Jewish, bookish, modish), -less (honourless, seamless, stateless),
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-like (?semi-suffix, bishoplike, godlike), -ly (cowardly, orderly), -some (awesome, quarrelsome, tiresome), -y (creamy, nutty, silky). Non-native suffixes becoming productive during this period are:
-able (French, mainly deverbal): advisable, answerable, eatable, drinkable, perishable, unbreakable, unconsumable; come-at-able, get-at-able; actionable, fashionable, sizeable
-al (-ial, -ical, -orial, -ual): global, horizontal, dictatorial, professional, logical, rhetorical, whimsical, accentual, conceptual (all basically Latin-based)
-ary (Latin): cautionary, complementary, fragmentary, revolutionary -ate (Latin and French): affectionate, compassionate, opinionate -esque (French): carnivalesque, picturesque
-ic (French): Celtic, democratic, Germanic, Miltonic, operatic, parasitic, problematic
-ive (French and Latin): amusive, conducive, depressive, preventive, sportive -ous (French): analogous, burdenous, hazardous, ostentatious, poisonous,
thunderous
Verb-forming suffixes
-ate (Latin): capacitate, fabricate, facilitate
-ify (French and Latin): beautify, countrify, fishify, Frenchify, monkeyfy, speechify, uglify
-ise (French and Latin): apologise, bastardise, fertilise, popularise, satirise, womanise
Other types of formation
Zero derivation continues in early Modern English in all domains and sense groups discussed above, including derivation from loans.
Deverbal nouns: contest, grasp, push, scream; award, brew, convert, produce, stew; cheat, pry, sneak; bend, dip, lounge; goggles, rattle; spring
Denominal verbs: bottle, channel, garrison, pocket; gun, net, trumpet; commotion, gesture, paraphrase, serenade; brick, glove, mask; bundle, group, pulp; butcher, mother, nurse, usher
Deadjectival verbs: dirty, empty, numb, obscure; idle, mute, shy, swift
Other types such as acronyms, reduplication, clipping and blending, which are of great importance in Modern English, begin to show up in this period. Thus the acronyms a.m. ‘ante meridian’, MA ‘Master of Arts’, are recorded from the eighteenth century. Clap-trap, hocus-pocus, shilly-shally, tittle-tattle, pooh-pooh, yap-yap are also recorded from this period. Clippings like miss < mistress, cute < acute, wig < periwig; brandy < brandywine, chap < chapman, gent < gentleman, hack < hackney, van < vanguard are also found for the first time in this period. Recorded blends from this period are twirl < twist + whirl, blotch < blot + botch, dumfound < dumb + confound.