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4. In a civil case, the “claimant” brings an action against the
Alternatively, you can say that the claimant sues the
dant
ful he will be found not liable (for tort, breach of
denial is unsuccessful he will be found liable. The court will then
award to the
against the “
to collect debts
governments. Thus U.S. v. Mayer might be a collection action
or Canada v. U.S. might be a boundary dispute
Justice. Governments can be sued, as well; people occasionally sue their state or
federal government, but they can only get a trial if the government waives its
sovereign immunity and allows such suits.
defends the case by denying liability. If his denial of liability is success-
contract
claimant.
respondent”.
5. It should be remembered that governments may also bring civil actions
from or settle disputes with individuals, corporations, or other
In an appeal case, the “
appellant”
in the International Court of
defendant. The
or
whatever).
brings the appeal
for unpaid taxes,
defendant.
defen-
If his
make
an
Key Differences between Civil Law
and Criminal Law
6. Criminal law is concerned with conduct that is offensive to society as a
whole. A criminal case involves a governmental decision to prosecute an individual for an alleged offense
vate citizens to each other. In civil cases the disputes are usually between private individuals, although the government may sometimes be a party in a civil
suit.
7. In a civil case the court attempts to settle a particular dispute between
the parties by determining their legal rights. The court then decides upon an appropriate remedy, such as awarding monetary damages to the injured party or
issuing an order that directs one party to perform or refrain from
In a criminal case the court decides whether the defendant is innocent or guilty.
A guilty defendant may be punished by measures expressly prescribed
country’s penal law.
8. In a civil case, the plaintiff usually must prove his or her case by a preponderance of the evidence. A preponderance of the evidence is generally taken
to mean that there is sufficient evidence to overcome doubt or speculation
clearly means that less proof is required in civil cases than in criminal cases.
9. Because the state has extensive resources at its disposal
ing criminal cases, numerous procedural safeguards are in place
rights of defendants. One of these safeguards is the higher burden of proof that
applies in a criminal case: the prosecution must prove its case beyond a reason-
able doubt. If the jury views the evidence in the case as reasonably permitting
either a guilty or a not guilty verdict, then the jury’s verdict must be not guilty.
In other words, the government (prosecutor) must prove beyond a reasonable
doubt that the defendant has committed every essential element of the offense
with which she or he is charged. If the jurors are not convinced of the defendant’s guilt beyond a reasonable doubt, they must find the defendant not guilty.
. Civil law pertains primarily to the duties of pri-
a specific act.
in the
. It
when prosecut-
to protect the
71
10. Additionally, in a criminal case, the jury’s verdict normally must be
unanimous
to convict the defendant. In a civil trial by jury, in contrast, typically
only three-fourths of the jurors need to agree. The higher burden of proof in
criminal cases reflects a fundamental social value – the belief that it is worse to
convict an innocent individual than to let a guilty person go free.
11. Another major difference is that many of the extensive due process
guarantees that a defendant has in a criminal trial do not apply in a civil proceeding. For example, neither party is constitutionally entitled to counsel.
Figure 6. Key Differences between Civil and Criminal Law
Issue Civil Law Criminal Law
Subject matter Disputes between private
individuals.
Wrongful act Causing harm to a person or to a
person’s property.
Party
who brings suit
Purpose
of the action
Burden
of proof
Verdict Three-fourths majority (typically). Unanimous.
Remedy Money damages (legal remedy) to
Examples Contract, tort, trusts, administra-
The person who suffered harm. The state.
To settle disputes peacefully,
usually between private parties
and to remedy the wrong which
has been suffered.
Preponderance of the evidence
(plaintiff brings case; defendant
must answer or lose by default
compensate for the harm or a
decree to achieve an equitable
result (e.g. injunction, specific
performance).
tion of estate, marriage and divorce, adoption.
Offences against the state.
Violating a statute that pro-
hibits some type of activity.
To preserve order in the
community by punishing
offenders and deterring
others.
Beyond a reasonable doubt
(prosecutor brings case; de-
).
fendant may remain silent).
Punishment (e.g. fine, forfei-
ture, community service,
probation, imprisonment, or
death).
Theft, burglary, embezzle-
ment, espionage, driving
with excess alcohol.
12. Relationship between civil and criminal
portant
to
understand
that a
particular
course of conduct can give rise to con-
law.
It is extremely
im-
sequences in both civil law and criminal law at the same time. For example, the
crime of murder and most other criminal offences involving physical injury will
almost invariably involve the torts (that is, the civil wrongs) of assault and battery. The crime of causing criminal damage, for example, by throwing a missile
at a car, will amount to the tort of trespass to goods. The crime of causing death
by dangerous driving will amount to the tort of negligence; the crimes of dangerous driving or driving without due care and attention
72
, assuming that they result
in physical damage to another person or to his property, will amount to the tort of
negligence.
основные источники информации: Kelly D., Hammer R., Hendy J. Business
Law. 2-nd ed. NY: Routledge, 2014; Miller R.L., Cross F.B., Jentz G.A. Essentials of the Legal Environment. 3-d ed. Mason: South-Western, Cengage Learning, 2011; Owens K. Law for Non-Law Students. 3-rd ed. London: Cavendish
Publishing Ltd, 2001.
5.4.1. Слова из текста:
adjudicated and enforced – рассмотренный в судебном порядке и обеспеченный
правовой санкцией
general framework – общие принципы, общие рамки
activation – приведение в действие, инициирование
punishable – караемый, заслуживающий наказания, наказуемый
terminology – совокупность/система терминов
prosecution – уголовное преследование, государственное обвинение
charge with – обвинять, предъявлять обвинение в
prosecute – преследовать в судебном или уголовном порядке
plead guilty – признавать себя виновным в предъявленном обвинении
make a plea in mitigation – заявить ходатайство о смягчении приговора
blameworthy [‘bleım,w:(r)θı] – наказуемый, заслуживающий порицания
lenient – снисходительный, терпимый, мягкий
convict – признать виновным, осудить
deny liability – отрицать ответственность
denial – отрицание, отказ
make an award – выносить решение о возмещении (в пользу)
appellant – сторона, подающая апелляцию; истец по апелляции
respondent – ответчик по апелляции
collect debts – получать деньги в погашение долга
collection action – действие/иск по взысканию долгов
boundary dispute – пограничный спор, разногласия по спорной границе
waive sovereign immunity – отказаться от иммунитета суверенного государства в
случае обычной гражданской ответственности
offensive – причиняющий вред, оскорбительный
alleged offense – вменяемое правонарушение (наличие которого утверждается)
refrain from – воздерживаться от
innocent – невинный, невиновный
guilty – виновный
expressly prescribed – специально установленный, в явной форме предусмотрен-
ный
doubt or speculation – сомнение или предположение
at disposal – в распоряжении, на усмотрение
73
be in place – быть принятым (о законодательстве)
prove beyond reasonable doubt – преодолеть обоснованное сомнение (принцип
презумпции невиновности)
unanimous – единогласный, единодушный
by default – в отсутствие неявившейся стороны, за неявкой
unanimous – единогласный
course of conduct – линия поведения, образ действия
missile [‘mısaıl] – метательный снаряд, метательное оружие
trespass to goods – нарушение владения движимостью с причинением вреда
amount to – равняться, сводиться к, означать
due care and attention – должная осторожность и внимание
5.5. Дополнительная Web-информация по теме.
http://criminal.findlaw.com/criminal-law-basics/the-differences-between-a-criminal-
case-and-a-civil-case.html – The Differences between a Criminal Case and a
Civil Case
http://www.legalmatch.com/law-library/article/criminal-law-distinguished-from-
civil-law.html – Criminal Law Distinguished From Civil Law
http://www.legalmatch.com/law-library/article/defenses-to-civil-liability.html
fenses to Civil Liability
http://www.legalmatch.com/law-library/article/the-preponderance-of-the-evidence-
in-civil-law.html – The Preponderance of the Evidence in Civil Law
http://estate.findlaw.com/
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-civil-remedies.htm
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-legal-remedies.htm
– Estate Planning
– What are Civil Remedies?
– What are Legal Remedies?
–De-
5.6. Ключевые слова.
1) Просмотрите ключевые слова по теме «Civil Law».
2) Употребите любые 7 из этих слов/выражений в самостоятельно составленных предложениях, используя не только содержание тематических
текстов из данного учебного пособия, но и дополнительные материалы из
англоязычных источников.
3) Будьте готовы прочитать свои предложения студентам группы так,
чтобы они смогли на слух перевести их на русский язык.
adjudication
appellant
award of damages
bench trial
caption
civil wrong
closing argument/statement
consideration
legal relations
motion
opening statement
ownership
personal injury
personal property
pleadings
post-trial
74
contract law
court record
cross-examination
declaratory
devolution of property
discovery
division of assets
ejectment
escheat
exemplary damages
final judgment
general damages
in personam action
in rem action
injunction
judicial proceeding
jurisdiction
jury trial
law of remedies
law of succession
legal capacity
prayer for relief
pretrial
property law
provisional remedy
real property
rectification
remedy
replevin
rescission
special damages
specific performance
statutory limitation
subject matter
substantive law
to file a complaint
to seek damages
to seek damages
to seek relief
to waive
tort law
venue
5.7. Передайте основное содержание текстов на тему «Civil
Law», используя типовые фразы из Приложения 5 и опираясь
на следующие пункты плана:
– nature of civil law;
– key differences between civil law and criminal law;
– substantive and procedural issues of civil law;
– five basic categories of substantive civil law;
– civil procedure: jurisdiction, venue, parties, pleading, discovery, trial,
remedies and post-trial.
Unit 6. Forms of Business. –
Формы предпринимательства
6.1. Выполните следующие задания:
1) Прочитайте и переведите текст.
2) Составьте 5 ‘специальных вопросов’ (Special Questions или WQuestions) к тексту, используя информацию из Приложения 1 с комментариями о структуре вопросительного предложения в английском языке.
75
Будьте готовы в ходе занятия задать другим студентам свои вопросы по
содержанию прочитанного текста.
3) Составьте список из 7-9 ключевых слов из представленного ниже
текста.
4) Подготовьте 5-7 утверждений, выражающих основное содержание
данного текста; будьте готовы озвучить эти утверждения в ходе аудиторного занятия.
Forms of Business:
Sole Proprietorships, Franchises and Partnerships
1. Business law (also known as commercial law or mercantile law) is the
body of rules, created by convention, agreement, or national or international
legislation, which governs the dealings between persons in commercial matters.
Business law falls into two distinctive areas
entities by the laws of company, partnership, agency, and bankruptcy and (ii)
the regulation of commercial transactions by the laws of contract and related
fields.
2. One of the questions faced by anyone who wishes to start up a business
is what form of business organization to choose. The options include a sole
proprietorship, a partnership, and a corporation. In addition to these traditional
business forms, several other forms can be used to organize a business. For the
most part, these special business forms are hybrid organizations – that is, they
have characteristics similar to those of partnerships or corporations, or combine
features of both. These forms include limited liability companies
tures, syndicates, joint stock companies, business trusts, and cooperatives.
: (i) the regulation of commercial
, joint ven-
Sole Proprietorships
3. The simplest form of business is a sole proprietorship. In this form, the
owner is the business. To be a sole proprietorship, you do not have to take any
formal or legal steps at the national or local level for creating the business enti-
ty. At the same time there are still certain filings that will need to be completed
– such as obtaining an Employee Identification Number
tration (for tax purposes) and any permits for building or sales.
4. Advantages of sole proprietorships. The main benefit of a sole proprietorship is its low costs and ease of formation. Another major advantage of
the sole proprietorship is that the proprietor
addition, the sole proprietor is free to make any decision he or she wishes concerning the business – whom to hire, what kind of business to pursue
on. A sole proprietor pays only personal income taxes
5. The major disadvantage of the sole proprietorship is that, as sole
owner, the proprietor alone bears the burden of all liabilities incurred by the
business. Another disadvantage is that the proprietor’s opportunity to raise capital is limited to personal funds and the funds of those who are willing to make
loans. A sole proprietorship also lacks continuity of the business on the death of
76
(owner) receives all the profits. In
from the fiscal adminis-
,and so
on profits.
the proprietor. When the owner withdraws from business or dies, the business is
automatically dissolved
.
Franchises
6. Instead of setting up a business form through which to market their own
products or services, many entrepreneurs
chise is defined as any arrangement in which the owner of a trademark, trade
name, copyright, patent, trade secret or some form of business operation,
process, or system licenses others to use that property, operation, process, or
system in supplying
7. A franchisee
pendent of the franchisor
goods or services.
is a purchaser of a franchise who is generally legally inde-
(the seller of the franchise). At the same time, the
franchisee is economically dependent on the franchisor’s integrated business
system. In other words, a franchisee can operate as an independent businessperson but still obtain the advantages of a regional or national organization.
8. Because a franchise relationship is primarily a contractual relationship, it
is governed by contract law. The franchise contract specifies the terms and conditions of the franchise and spells out the rights and duties of the franchisor and
the franchisee. The duration of the franchise is also a matter to be determined
between the parties.
9. Types of Franchises. Many different kinds of businesses now sell franchises, and numerous types of franchises are available. Generally, though, the
majority of franchises fall into one of three classifications: distributorships
chain-style
business operations, or manufacturing or processing-plant arrange-
ments.
10. Advantages of franchising:
– You can use a recognised brand name and trademarks. Your business is
based on a proven idea
. You benefit from any advertising or promotion by the
franchisor.
– The franchisor gives you support which may be in the form of training,
help in setting up the business, and ongoing advice
– Financing the business may be easier. Banks are sometimes more likely
to lend money to buy a franchise with a good reputation.
– Relationships with suppliers have already been established.
11. Disadvantages of franchising:
– All profits (a percentage of sales) are usually shared with the franchisor.
– The franchise agreement usually includes restrictions on how you can
run the business
.
– Other franchisees could give the brand a bad reputation.
– You may find it difficult to sell your franchise – you can only sell it to
someone approved by the franchisor.
– The franchisor might go out of business
– The duration of a franchise agreement is usually limited and the franchi-
see may have little or no say
about the terms of a termination.
opt to purchase a franchise. A fran-
.
.
,
77
Partnerships
12. A partnership arises from an agreement, express or implied, between
two or more persons to carry on a business for profit. A partnership is based on
a voluntary contract between two or more competent persons who agree to
place funds, labor, and skill in a business with the understanding that profits
and losses will be proportionately shared
13. The essential elements of a partnership are as follows: (i) a sharing of
profits and losses; (ii) a joint ownership
the management of the business. There are two basic types of partnerships: gen-
eral partnerships and limited partnerships. Generally, the term ‘partnership’ refers to a general partnership.
14. As a rule, the law of partnership recognizes a partnership as an inde-
pendent entity. A partnership usually can sue or be sued, collect judgments
have all accounting procedures
in the name of the partnership entity. Partnership property may be held in the name
names of the individual partners.
15. Relationships, arising in partnerships, are also governed by agency law
In one important way, however, partnerships are distinct from agency relationships. In a nonpartnership agency relationship, the agent usually does not have
an ownership interest
in the business, nor is he or she obliged to bear a portion
of the ordinary business losses.
16. Advantages of the partnership. By the operation of a partnership instead of a proprietorship, capital and skill may be increased, labor may be made
more efficient
, the expenses of business may be reduced, and management may
be improved.
17. A partnership has the following disadvantages:
– the unlimited personal liability of each partner for the debts of the part-
nership;
– the divided authority among the partners, which may lead to disharmony
– the relative instability of the business because of the danger of dissolu-
tion by reason of the death or withdrawal of one of the partners.
.
of the business; (iii) an equal right in
, and
of the partnership rather than in the
.
;
основные источники информации: Miller R.L., Cross F.B., Jentz G.A. Essentials of the Legal Environment. 3-d ed. Mason: South-Western, Cengage Learning, 2011; Emerson R.W. Business Law: Business Review Books. 4-th ed. New
York: Barron’s Educational Series, 2004.
6.1.1. Слова из текста:
convention – совместно принятое правило, общее согласие
distinctive areas – различительные области/сферы
entity – хозяйственная организация, предприятие
business organization – организационные формы предпринимательства
a business – предприятие, компания, дело, коммерческое предприятие, деловое
предприятие, фирма
78
sole proprietorship – индивидуальное частное предприятие, единоличное пред-
приятие или собственность (неинкорпорированная компания, которая принадлежит и управляется одним человеком)
stock certificate – свидетельство на акцию; свидетельство на долю участия в ак-
ционерном капитале компании
partnership – товарищество, партнёрство (ассоциация двух и более лиц, создан-
ная с целью ведения деловых операций)
limited liability company – акционерная компания с ограниченной ответственно-
стью (с ответственностью участников, ограниченной номинальной суммой
паёв)
joint venture [dʒınt ‘ventər] – совместное предприятие, временное товарищест-
во, кратковременное объединение нескольких подрядных фирм
syndicate – синдикат, консорциум
joint stock company – акционерная компания
business trust – деловой доверительный паевой фонд, промышленный траст
business entity – предприятие, фирма, компания, коммерческая организация, хо-
зяйственная единица (юридическое лицо, занимающееся экономической
деятельностью ради получения прибыли)
filing – представление документа, регистрация документов, подача заявки
employee identification number – идентификационный номер наёмного работника
fiscal administration – налоговое ведомство
permit – разрешение, разрешительное свидетельство
proprietor – владелец, собственник, хозяин
pursue – заниматься, выполнять, осуществлять
personal income tax – подоходный налог с физических лиц
make a loan – предоставлять заём, предоставлять ссуду
lack continuity – лишаться преемственности, утратить непрерывность функцио-
нирования
dissolve – ликвидировать, расформировывать, прекращать
entrepreneur – предприниматель, хозяин мелкого предприятия, владелец пред-
приятия
franchise [‘fræntaız] – франчайзинг, коммерческая концессия, франшиза (со-
глашение, в соответствии с которым правообладатель обязуется предоста-
вить правоприобретателю за вознаграждение право использовать в пред-
принимательской деятельности правоприобретателя комплекс исключи-
тельных прав, принадлежащих правообладателю)
supply – предоставлять, поставлять, оказывать, обеспечивать
franchisee – получатель торговой привилегии; предприятие, реализующее изде-
лия промышленного предприятия на основе договора франшизы
franchisor – правообладатель; фирма, предоставляющая привилегию
distributorship – оптовая продажа
chain-style – сетевой
processing plant – обрабатывающее предприятие, предприятие по переработке
79
proven idea – апробированная концепция, проверенный план/проект
ongoing advice – постоянные консультации
run the business – управлять предприятием/компанией
go out of business – прекратить деятельность, ликвидировать предприятие
have little or no say – быть ограниченным или не иметь права вмешиваться (в
решение или обсуждение вопроса)
termination – прекращение действия, окончание срока
express or implied – явно выраженный или подразумеваемый
proportionately shared – пропорционально разделяемый
joint ownership – совместное владение, совладение
general partnership – полное товарищество; товарищество с неограниченной от-
ветственностью
limited partnership – товарищество с ограниченной ответственностью; ограни-
ченное товарищество
collect judgments – взыскивать по решению суда
ownership interest – доля участия (в капитале компании), процент владения
accounting procedures – методы ведения учёта, организация бухгалтерского учёта
be held in the name – управляться от имени, использоваться от имени
agency law – право, регулирующее агентские отношения
efficient [ı’fıənt] – действенный, эффективный, практичный, выгодный
disharmony [dıs’h:rmənı] – разногласие, отсутствие согласованности, разлад
dissolution – ликвидация, прекращение, закрытие
withdrawal [wıð’dr:əl] – отказ от участия, уход
6.2. Выполните следующие задания:
1) Прочитайте и переведите текст.
2) Составьте 5 ‘специальных вопросов’ (Special Questions или WQuestions) к тексту, используя информацию из Приложения 1 с комментариями о структуре вопросительного предложения в английском языке.
Будьте готовы в ходе занятия задать другим студентам свои вопросы по
содержанию прочитанного текста.
3) Составьте список из 7-9 ключевых слов из представленного ниже
текста.
4) Подготовьте 5-7 утверждений, выражающих основное содержание
данного текста; будьте готовы озвучить эти утверждения в ходе аудиторного занятия.
Forms of Business:
Limited Liability Companies
1. The limited liability company (LLC) is a hybrid that combines the limited liability aspects of a corporation and the tax advantages
Like corporations, LLCs are legal entities apart from
80
their members. As a legal
of a partnership.
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