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6. What is the difference between federal laws and federal constitutional
laws in Russia?
7. What organs are authorized to make decrees and executive regulations?
8. What serves as the highest law in Russia? What does it mean?
9. What organ are federal statutes enacted in Russia by?
3.3. Прочитайте и переведите текст.
Sources of English Law
1. The main sources of law in the United Kingdom are: (i) legislation of
the European Union (EU); (ii) legislation by Parliament and subordinate
legated) legislation; (iii) case law
Scottish or Northern Irish courts. Customs and
treated as secondary
Figure 3. Sources of Law in the United Kingdom.
sources of English law.
from cases decided by judges in English,
writings of legal authors are
(or de-
Primary Sources of Law
– primary and secondary EU legislation;
international treaties;
– legislation enacted by Parliament and
delegated legislation;
–case law.
ENGLISH
LAW
Secondary Sources
of Law
–customs;
– writings of legal authors.
2. Since Britain’s accession to European Community, legislation of the
EU or ‘Community law’ forms an independent source of English law. Community law has not been incorporated
or made identical with domestic law but operates as a separate system side by side with that law and in case of conflict
Community law prevails
over domestic law.
3. Community law is subdivided into primary legislation and secondary
legislation.
4. Primary EU legislation consists of a number of treaties, protocols
, council decisions, which founded the European Economic Community. This legislation can be directly enforced
through the courts of Member States if the state’s
domestic legislation does not give the rights which the European legislation
contains. Legislation which may be directly enforced against the State is said to
have a ‘vertical effect’. Legislation which may be directly enforced against individuals is said to have a ‘horizontal effect’.
5. Secondary EU legislation may be made under the authority of Article
189 of the Treaty of Rome in the form of: (a) regulations
;(b)directives; and (c)
decisions.
31
6. EC regulations are directly applicable, both vertically and horizontally,
in all Member States, meaning that they are a part of national domestic law
without the need for any specific incorporation
to apply regulations incompletely
.
. A Member State has no power
7. EC directives are said to be solely ‘vertical’ in effect, in that they are addressed to the Member States and the state must give legislative effect
to them
before they become law. Thus directives provide for a more flexible route to the
result which is to be achieved by all EU countries as far as it is up to individual
countries to decide how and by what means
it is to be implemented and the de-
sired result achieved.
8. Decisions of the Commission, as another type of secondary EU legislation, may be addressed to a Member State, to a number of Member States, or to
an individual. The decision is binding
on those to whom it is addressed. A deci-
sion may be appealed against in the European Court of Justice.
9. Decisions of the European Court of Justice are also of great importance.
Any national court or tribunal dealing with a case which raises issues
of Union
legislation may refer the matter to the European Court of Justice (ECJ), for a
ruling
regarding the interpretation of the legislation.
10. Legislation by Parliament or enacted law consists of laws made by
the Parliament or under its delegated authority
and may be:
– Statutes or Acts of Parliament;
– Orders in Council
Minister drafts
and makes them in the name of the monarch);
– rules and regulations
made by the monarch in Privy Council (in practice, a
made by Ministers, but they must be submitted to
Parliament for approval;
– bylaws
made by local authorities, they require the approval of the appro-
priate Minister before they have legislative force.
11. In England the decisions of courts are treated with respect, and they
are regarded as «precedents». The feature of their national system is the hierar-
chical authority of the courts: an inferior court is obliged to follow a court of
superior authority if decides upon facts similar to facts already tried by the su-
perior court.
12. Customs are social habits of behaviour, which all societies seem to
evolve without express formulation
or conscious creation. Customs, prevailing
among particular groups of people living in particular localities, are sometimes
recognized by the courts as capable of creating a special law for the locality.
But recognition will only be accorded
if the custom is: 1) reasonable, 2) cer-
tain, 3) of «immemorial existence», 4) not contrary to any statute.
13. In England the writings of legal authors are treated as an essential
source of law, for there are certain «books of authority», written by authors of
outstanding eminence, which may carry a weight of authority almost equal to
that of precedent. Among the most important of these works are Bracton’s «De
Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliae» (thirteenth century), Coke’s «Institutes»
(1628–1641) and Blackstone’s «Commentaries» (1765).
32
14. As concerns the British Constitution it is said to be ‘unwritten’, be-
cause it is not contained in a single legal document that codifies the functions of
the UK political institutions and sets out the basic rights and duties of British
citizens. Britain does, however, have certain important constitutional documents, including the Magna Carta (1215) which protects the rights of the
community against the Crown; the Bill of Rights (1689) which extended the
powers of Parliament, making it impracticable for the Sovereign to ignore the
wishes of the Government; the Reform Act (1832), which reformed the system
of parliamentary representation; the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949.
15. On the whole the British Constitution contains three main principles:
– rule of law; i.e. that everyone, whatever his or her station, is subject to
the law;
– separation of powers; i.e. power should be shared between the legislature
(the two Houses of Parliament), which makes laws, the Executive (the Government), which puts laws into effect and plans policy, and the judiciary, which
decides on cases arising out of the laws; and
– supremacy of Parliament, which implies that there is no body that can
declare the activities of Parliament unconstitutional and that Parliament can in
theory do whatever it wishes.
3.3.1. Слова из текста:
legislation – законодательство; законодательный акт; закон; законодательная
деятельность, нормотворческая деятельность
subordinate – вспомогательный, второстепенный
case law – прецедентное право
writings of a legal author – труды юриста-теоретика, работы эксперта по праву
accession – вступление
incorporated – введённый в состав
identical – тождественно равный, идентичный
prevail – иметь преимущественную силу
protocol – протокол; дополнительное международное соглашение
directly enforced – применяемый напрямую, непосредственно
regulations – регламенты, обязательные постановления
directive – директива, руководящее указание, распоряжение
incorporation – включение, добавление, применение
incompletely – не полностью, в ограниченном виде
give legislative effect – наделять нормативным значением
by what means – при помощи каких средств
be binding – имеет обязательную силу
raise issue – порождать спорный вопрос
ruling – постановление, определение, решение (суда)
delegated authority – делегированные полномочия
order in council – «королевский указ в совете» (правительственное распоряже-
ние, одобренное монархом и не требующее рассмотрения в парламенте
33
Privy Council – Тайный совет (в Великобритании)
draft – составлять проект, писать черновик, делать набросок
in the name of – от имени; именем
rules and regulations – правила и предписания
submit – представлять на рассмотрение
bylaws – подзаконные нормативные акты
hierarchical [,haıə’r:(r)kıkəl] – иерархический
inferior court [ın’fıərıər kо:(r)t] – нижестоящий суд
superior court – высший суд; вышестоящий суд
be tried – находиться на рассмотрении суда
express formulation – точная формулировка
conscious creation – целенаправленное формирование
accord – предоставлять, признавать, соглашаться
reasonable – разумный, благоразумный; рациональный; здравый
certain – конкретный, известный, определённый, постоянный
immemorial existence – существование с незапамятных времен
author of outstanding eminence – выдающийся исследователь
weight of authority – значимость, авторитетность, весомость
De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliae – О законах и обычаях Англии (произве-
дение, приписываемое традицией Генри Бректону, в котором обосновыва-
ется приоритет закона над королевской властью)
Institutes – Институты английского права (автор Эдвард Коук)
Commentaries – Комментарии к английским законам (автор Уильям Блэкстон)
Magna Carta – «Великая хартия вольностей»
Bill of Rights – «Билль о правах» (в Англии)
extend – расширять
impracticable – невозможный, невыполнимый, неосуществимый
Reform Act – реформа избирательной системы в Англии (1831-32)
Parliament Acts 1911, 1949 – акты Парламента, ограничившие полномочия Па-
латы Лордов 1911 и 1949 годов
station – общественное положение; социальный статус
be subject to – подчиняться, находиться под действием
supremacy – верховенство; превосходство
3.3.2. Найдите в тексте ответы на следующие вопросы:
1. What are the principal sources of English law?
2. What prevails in the case of conflict between domestic law of England
and Community law?
3. What are the types of British legislation?
4. What are the types of EU legislation?
5. What authorities pass legislation in England?
6. What does a «book of authority» mean? Give examples.
34
7. What is regarded as «precedent»?
8. What is the difference between legislation of the EU with ‘vertical’ and
‘horizontal’ effect?
9. When are the customs recognized by courts as capable of being a source
of law?
10. What is the British Constitution composed of?
11. What main principles is the British Constitution based on?
3.4. Прочитайте и переведите текст.
Sources of US Law
1. In general, law in the United States today comes from five main sources:
constitutional law, English common law, statutory law
istrative law. Although these sources may seem different, they all are combined
into the following hierarchy of sources of law in the USA:
– U.S. Constitution;
– federal statutes, international treaties, court rules of civil, criminal and
appellate procedure, and court rules of evidence;
– federal administrative agency rules and executive orders;
– federal ‘case law’ (note
, that case law is lower than statutory law, so it
can be displaced by enactment);
– state constitutions;
– state statutes and court rules;
– state agency rules;
– state ‘case law’;
– secondary authorities
restatements
).
(e.g. treatises, law reviews, legal encyclopedias,
2. Federal and state constitutions. A country’s Constitution spells out
principles by which the government operates, sets forth
of citizens, defines the limits within which the federal and state governments
may pass laws
. In addition, the Constitution describes the functions of the various branches and divisions of their national government. The Constitution now
has 27 amendments
. The first 10 amendments, ratified in 1791, are called the
Bill of Rights. They limit the powers of the government. The basic purpose of
the Bill of Rights is to protect two kinds of rights: rights of individual liberty
and rights of persons accused of
crimes.
3. Each state in the USA has its own constitution which is similar but not
identical to the federal Constitution. It can be more protective, specified
more restrictive than the federal Constitution.
4. English common law. The legal system of all states, except for Louisiana (where the influence of French Civil law forms a hybrid system), is rooted
in English common law and equity law. The early American colonists came
from England, so it was natural for them to adopt the law of England in their
new land. Under the common law doctrine of precedent
, court decisions, admin-
the
the fundamental rights
, and
, a judge is required to
35
follow an earlier court decision when deciding a case with similar circumstances. It is also sometimes called the doctrine of stare decisis, which means,
“let the decision stand.”
5. Statutory law. Statutes are laws specifically passed by a legislative
body. Laws passed by the U.S. Congress, state legislatures
, local city councils,
or town meetings can all be called statutory law. Statutory law is found in state
and federal statutes, city ordinances, and town bylaws.
6. Court decisions. Most people are surprised to learn that courts make
law. Courtmade law is often called ‘case law’, ‘court decisions’, and ‘judgemade law’. Courts make law in three ways:
– through the common law tradition via precedents;
– by interpreting statutes: explaining the meaning of legal norms in a case
of dispute); and
–byjudicial review
: checking the constitutionality of all laws and gov-
ernment actions.
7. Administrative law. Federal, state, and local legislatures sometimes
give the power to regulate a particular kind of activity to an administrative
agency. Also called a regulatory agency
, these agencies are departments of
government formed to administer particular legislation. For example, the Federal Communications Commission regulates broadcasting
.
8. Administrative agencies can make their own rules, enforce their rules,
investigate
violations of their rules, and decide the guilt or innocence of those
who violate their rules. Administrative law consists of those rules and procedures established by regulatory agencies. However the legislature that created
an agency has the power to end
Any final decision by an agency can be reviewed
that agency’s existence or to change its powers.
by a court.
9. Finding cases and statutes by citation. Any reference to any primary
law source – case or statute – has a citation
. A citation is a standardized reference to a published court decision or a statute that tells you where to find it. In
other words, a citation is the address that tells you where the case or the legal
norm is located.
10. A typical case citation
– case title or case caption
in the USA includes:
: names of the parties (i.e. who is suing or pros-
ecuting whom);
– reporter
– series number
series; but publishers
: abbreviated name of the set of books in which the case appears;
: a reporter not stating a series number is always the first
periodically begin a new series of a reporter (e.g. 2nd se-
ries, or, 2d);
– volume and page number: a volume number precedes the reporter abbreviation, while the page number where a case begins follows the series number;
–date;
– parallel citations: court cases are often published by more than one publisher, so there can be more than one citation appearing after the name of the
36
case. (Note: the first citation given is to the official reports for a particular
court, and is called the “official citation.” The text of the opinion
is the same in
all sources, whether they are “official” or “unofficial”.)
11. For example: Li v. Yellow Cab Co. (1975) 13 Cal.3d 804, 119 Cal.
Rptr. 858, 532 P.2d 1126.
The official version of this 1975 California Supreme Court case is found in
Volume 13 of the California Reports, 3rd series at page 804. “Unofficial” versions appear in Volume 119 of the California Reporter and Volume 532 of the
Pacific Reporter, 2nd series.
12. Another common type of legal citation likely to be encountered is a ci-
tation to a statute or code. A statutory citation
generally contains the following
elements:
– title or abbreviated name of the code;
– chapter number of the code;
– section or part number of the title or chapter; and
– year of the code.
13. The major difference between a case citation and a statute or code citation is that the latter will usually not include a parallel citation. Also, the year of
publication of the print volume is used, not the year of enactment or amendment.
14. Here are two examples: Cal. Rev. & Tax Code § 2280 (West 1998) and
Cal. Lab. Code § 5304 (Deering 2006).
The first citation refers to section 2280 of the California Revenue and Taxation Code published in West’s Annotated California Codes. The second citation is to section 5304 of the California Labor Code published in Deering’s California Codes Annotated. The year next to the publisher refers to the publication
date of the print volume.
15. Note: In civil litigation a case caption first lists the name of the plaintiff
(or plaintiffs), which may be an individual, an organization, or a company. The
abbreviation ‘v.’ or ‘vs.’ represents the Latin word ‘versus’, which means
‘against’. If the government appears first in the caption of the case, it is likely
that the government agency brings a charge against the offender, and the government itself is listed as a party.
16. In England and Wales as with certain Commonwealth countries (e.g.,
Canada, Australia, New Zealand, etc.) criminal cases are prosecuted by the
Crown, which is always represented by «R» for Rex (king), or Regina (queen),
for instance: R v. Clarence.
17. In the USA the caption of the case depends upon the level of a criminal
trial:
–inpenal actions
, brought by the state, the plaintiff is designated either by
the word “People” or by the name of the state where the trial is held, for instance: People v. Joe, People v. Brown or Georgia v. Jane, Arizona v. Miranda;
– in cases, tried by federal courts, the United States is prosecuting on be-
half of the people: e.g. U.S. v. Lieberman.
37
3.4.1. Слова из текста:
statutory law [‘stætj,t:rı lо:] – статутное право, право, выраженное в законода-
тельных актах
note – обратить внимание, принимать к сведению
secondary authorities – источники права второстепенного значения
treatise – научный труд, монография
law review – обзор судебной практики
restatements – обновленное изложение права
spell out – разъяснять, объяснять точно или обстоятельно
set forth – излагать, формулировать
pass laws – принимать законы
amendment – поправка
accuse of – обвинять в
specified – подробно описанный
be rooted – уходить корнями (исторически), происходить (из)
common law – некодифицированное право, общее право, англо-саксонское право
equity law [‘ekwətı lо:] – право справедливости (часть прецедентного права, до-
полняющая общее право; сложилось в Англии из решений Суда канцлера;
регулирует в Англии, Ирландии и США некоторые институты права соб-
ственности и договорного права, в частности институты доверительной
собственности, возмещения ущерба, принуждения к исполнению договор-
ного обязательства)
precedent [‘presıdənt] – судебный прецедент
legislature – законодательная власть; законодательный орган
city council – городской муниципальный совет
judicial review – судебный контроль; обзор судебной практики
regulatory agency – орган государственного регулирования
broadcasting – радио- или телевизионное вещание
investigate – расследовать; получать сведения
guilt – виновность; наказуемость
innocence – невиновность
end – прекращать
existence – существование
review – пересматривать, проверять
citation – ссылка на прецедент или статью закона
case citation – приведение дела в качестве примера, ссылка на судебное дело
case caption – заголовок судебного дела, название судебного дела
reporter – сборник судебных решений
abbreviated – сокращённый, короткий
series number – номер серии
publisher – издательство
opinion – мотивировка решения, мотивированное судебное решение
statutory citation – ссылка на статуты, цитирование статутов
38
tell one thing from another – отличать одну вещь от другой
penal action – уголовное судопроизводство, уголовное преследование, уголов-
ное обвинение
3.4.2. Найдите в тексте ответы на следующие вопросы:
1. Are the main sources of law in the USA and Great Britain the same?
Explain your answer.
2. How do the courts in common law countries make law?
3. What is more restrictive: the US Constitution or the constitutions of in-
dividual states?
4. What are the components of common law?
5. What is the basic purpose of the first ten amendments to the US Consti-
tution?
6. What synonyms of the term ‘case law’ are given in the text above?
7. Why is it important to be able to distinguish between the U.S. Constitu-
tion and statutory law?
8. What is a citation?
9. What does ‘a parallel citation’ mean?
10. What does a typical case citation in the USA include?
11. What does a statutory citation usually contain?
3.5. Выразите согласие или несогласие со следующими утверждениями, используя фразы для ведения дискуссии:
1. Administrative agencies in America have the power to end the existence
of any state or federal legislature or to change its powers.
2. EC directives and regulations are directly applicable.
3. Federal laws in our country are passed exclusively by the Federal As-
sembly.
4. In England the decisions of lower courts are treated with respect because
these decisions establish precedents.
5. In England written law is predominant.
6. Legal rules must be administered in a manner consistent with their
wording.
7. Legislation is a codified system of laws developed from customs and
from decisions made by judges.
8. Rules, made by Ministers of the British Government, need not be sub-
mitted to the Parliament.
9. Russia, as well as the UK and the USA, belongs to the continental legal
system, and written law is the main legal source there.
10. The courts in common law countries are the interpreters and declares of
the law.
11. The legal system of all states in the USA is rooted in English common
law and equity law.
39
3.6. Ключевые слова.
1) Просмотрите ключевые слова по теме «Law and Its Sources».
2) Употребите любые 7 из этих слов/выражений в самостоятельно со-
ставленных предложениях, используя не только содержание тематических
текстов из данного учебного пособия, но и дополнительные материалы из
англоязычных источников.
3) Будьте готовы прочитать свои предложения студентам группы так,
чтобы они смогли на слух перевести их на русский язык.
amendment
binding
branch of law
bylaw
case law
common law
Community law
Continental/Civil law
custom
directive
enforcement
equity law
executive order
inferior court
international law
judicial review
legislation
legislature
ordinance
precedent
primary/secondary legislation
private law
procedural law
public law
regulations
religious law
secular law
social justice
source of law
stare decisis
statute of Parliament
statutory law
substantive law
superior court
to administer
to apply to
to be subject to
to enforce
to give legislative effect
to pass laws
to protect
unwritten law
writings of a legal author
written law
3.7. Передайте основное содержание текстов на тему «Law and
Its Sources», используя типовые фразы из Приложения 5 и
опираясь на следующие пункты плана:
– definition of law;
– nature and functions of law;
– classifications of law;
– sources of law in different legal systems.
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