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Файл:Английский язык для магистров в сфере государственного и муниципального управления = English for masters in state and municipal management. Практикум.pdf
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Notice that in speech the third conditional is nearly always contracted:
If I’d seen him, I’d have said hello.
4. Conjunctions that can sometimes be used in place of ` if `
Conditionals can also be introduced by the following conjunctions, which do
not always have precisely the same meaning as if: as long as assuming (that), even
if, only on (the) condition (that), provided/providing (that), so long as and
unless; also suppose (that) and supposing (that), which normally introduce
questions:
He’ll definitely win, even if he falls over.
They'll lend us their flat on (the) condition (that) we look after it.
Providing/Provided (that) (or So/As long as) you clear your desk by this
evening, you can have tomorrow off.
Suppose/Supposing (that) we miss the train, what shall we do?
Wishes
1. To wish can be used as a simple verb: I wish you a Merry Christmas.
2. Wish + Past Perfect is used to express past regrets.: I wish I had studied
better at school.
3. Wish + was/were/had is used to express wishes about states: I wish I had
blue eyes (but I don’t have).
4. Wish + could is used to express wishes about actions: I wish you could
dance (but you are not able to).
5. Wish + would do is used to express annoyance at the habits of others: He
wishes it would stop raining (he’d like it to stop raining, but he can’t change it).
Verb patterns
To -infinitive is used:
1.
to express purpose. - She went to the bank to get some monеу.
after certain verbs (advise, agree, appear, decide, expect, hope, manage,
2.
offer, promise,refuse, seem, want, afford, pretend. - Не advised mе to apply for
the job.
3.
after verbs such as know, decide, ask, learn, remember, want to
know, etc., when they are followed bу question words (who, what, where,
how, etc.). 'Why' is followed bу а
subject + verb,
not bу an infinitive.
I саn't decide where to go. I want to know why you've decided to leave.
4.
after
ashamed. -
5.
after
We've got enough money to buy а new саr.
adjectives
such as
Не is glad to bе back.
too and enough.
- She's too shy to talk to the manager.
nice, sorry, glad, happy, willing, afraid,
6. after it + bе + adjective (+ of + noun/pronoun).
It was nice of him to help.
7. after would like/ would love/ would prefer (to express specific
182
preference). - I would like to learn а foreign language.
Bare infinitive is used:
1. after modal verbs (mау, should, саn, ) – You must study hard.
2. after the verbs let, make, see, hear and feel. - They made him рау for the
damage.
but: (passive) Не was made to рау for the damage.
3.
after
had better and would rather. –
contract. I would rather go home now.
Note:1. Help
infinitive. -
2. We form
She helped mе (to) fix the tap.
is followed bу either the
the negative infinitive wth not.
Hе decided not to accept the job.She may not соmе.
You had better sign the
to - infinitive or the bare
The -ing form is used:
all.
1. as a noun. - Inhaling the fumes is dangerous.
2. after love, like, dislike, hate, enjoy, adore. I like reading books best of
3. after start, begin, stop, finish. Let’s start doing lab. Stop talking!
4. after go for physical activities. I go playing volleyball every Sunday. I go
consulting students every Saturday.
5. after certain verbs (avoid, admit, confess to, deny, look forward to,
mind, object to, prefer, regret, risk spend, suggest, etc). I can’t stand cooking. I
don’t mind helping you with the lab.
6. after the expressions: I’m busy, it’s no use in, it’s (no) good, it’s worth,
what’s the use of, be used to, there’s no point (in). In order to obtain the better
results it’s worth trying another instrument with less range.
7. after prepositions. In case of the data absence you leave the table without
filling in.
8. after hear, see, sound to emphasize an action in progress. I saw her
crossing the street (I saw her while she was crossing the street). I saw her cross the
street (I saw her when she had crossed the street).
Reported speech.
When we report what people have said using our own words rather than the
words they actually used, we use a reported speech.
We can report statements, suggestions, commands, offers, questions.
1. Reported statements.
A common way of reporting someone’s words is the following:
Reporting verbs
say
tell smb
183
Direct speech.
Reported speech.
He said (that)
“I want to buy it”
he wanted to buy it
Present Simple→Past Simple
“I’m writing a letter”
he was writing a letter
Present Continuous→Past
Continuous
“I’ve come to mend
your car”
he had come to mend
my car
Present Perfect→Past Perfect
“I saw your brother”
he had seen my brother
Past Simple→Past Perfect
“I was trying to do it”
he had been trying to
do it
Past Continuous→Past Perfect
Continuous
“I’ll help you”
he would help me
will→would
“I can do it”
he could do it
can→could
“ I may do it”
he might do it
may→might
“I must go”
he must / had to go
must→had to (or stay as must)
explain
interrupt + that + noun clause
deny
demand
insist
persuade
complain
think
warn
He admitted (that) he couldn’t help us.
He told me (that) he was tired.
We usually omit that, but in more formal situations we can use it after the reporting
verb.
2. Reported statements with the reporting verb in the present.
If the reporting verb is in the present, the tenses that follow are usually the
same as those used in the original spoken statement.
‘She’s going to America for six months’, we report it as: They say she’s going
to America for six months.
3. Reported statements with tense changes.
We tend to use past tenses in reported speech because we are reporting past
events, so we use the past tense of reporting verbs and we move the reported clauses
‘one tense back’. A useful general rule is: ‘present becomes past and past becomes
past perfect’.
Study this chart of tense changes.
Exceptions to the rule.
There is no tense change when:
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Direct speech.
Reported speech.
This
That/the
That
That/the
These
Those/the
Today
That day
Yesterday
The day before/the previous day
Before
Earlier
Tomorrow
The next day/the following day
Next week/month/year
The next week/the week after;
The following week
Ago
Before
Last week
The week before
Now
Then/at the moment
Tonight
That night
1. The reported speech is about something that is still true.
“I hate football”→I told him I hate football.
2. Past Perfect or Past Perfect Continuous is used:
“I had eaten earlier”→He said he had eaten earlier.
“I had been waiting for you”→She said she had been waiting for me.
3. The “past” modals are used: could, might, would, should, ought to.
“I could help you”→He said he could help me.
“I might see him”→She said she might see him.
4. Second and third conditional sentences are used:
“ If I were you, I would wear a scarf”→He said if he were me, he would wear a
scarf.
Adverb changes in reported speech.
Study this chart of adverb changes:
These changes depend on each situation. Sometimes they are not necessary,
especially in spoken reported speech.
“I will come tomorrow”→He said he would come the next day.
But: “I’ll see you tonight”→He said he would see me tonight.
4. Reported advice and suggestions.
1. This is how we report advice:
Advise + somebody + to do something
She said: “If I were you I’d take an umbrella”→She advised me to take an umbrella.
2. This is how we report a suggestion:
Suggest + (that) + someone + should (or could) do something
“Why not get your hair cut?”→He suggested (that) I should get my hair cut.
“Let’s go for a swim”→John suggested that we could go for a swim.
5. Reported commands.
The pattern is:
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Verb + somebody + to do something.
The mostly common verbs are:
instruct remind ask command
order persuade tell urge beg
“Wake me up early, Dad” Michael said→Michael told his dad to wake him up early.
“Please let me go out, Mum”, Anne said→Anne begged her mum to let her go out.
In negative commands not goes before the to-infinitive.
She begged him not to do it.
The police warned people not to go out.
6. Reported offers.
The pattern is:
Verb + to-infinitive
The mostly common verbs are:
offer refuse promise agree
‘Can I help you?’→ She offered to help me. ‘I won’t do it’→ He refused to do it.
7. Reported questions.
When we report questions we use the word order of a statement:
‘Can I leave the room?’ I asked → I asked if I could leave the room.
‘Where do you live?’→ She asked me where I lived.
We do not use a question mark in a reported question.
We do not use say in reported questions.
He said ‘How old are you?’→ He asked me how old I am.
Tense changes for reported questions in the past are the same as for reported
statements.
8. Yes/No questions.
The pattern is:
if/whether + noun clause.
‘Are you happy here?’ she asked
→ She asked me if /whether I was happy there.
‘Does he live in a large flat?’ she wondered → She wondered if /whether he lived in a
large flat.
We can usually use either if or whether, but we must use whether, not if when:
1. We are asking somebody to make a choice.
‘Do you want coffee or tea?’ they asked → They asked me whether I wanted
coffee or tea.
2. We include the phrase or not.
‘Is he coming or not?’ → Did he say whether he was coming or not?
The mostly common verbs which are used before if/whether are: ask, want, know,
wonder, inquire.
186
according to
в соответствие с…
accordingly
cоответственно
accounted for
учтённый, принятый во внимание
accurately
точно, в точности, правильно
be valid for
быть в силе по отношению к (о теореме, математическом
законе; ...)
alternatively
с другой стороны ; и наоборот
along with
наряду с; вместе с; равно как и
approximately
приблизительно
as
как, являясь, в качестве, так как
as a result
в результате , в итоге
as follows
следующим образом; как указано ниже
at least
по крайней мере
as well as
как ... так и; как и; так же, как и
at the outset
вначале, с самого начала
compared with
по сравнению с….
concurrently
параллельно, одновременно
consequently
следовательно
сonsistently
постоянно, последовательно
contrariwise
наоборот; в противоположном направлении; с другой
стороны; напротив
conversely
напротив, и наоборот; с другой стороны
due to
благодаря, вследствие, в результате
easily
легко, свободно, без труда
either ……or
или……или
finally
в конце концов, в конечном счете, в заключение
for the most part
главным в основном; по большей большей частью;
в основном; преимущественно
9.Wh-questions
When we report a Wh-question, we use the Wh-word: Who, Where, Why, etc and
statement word order.
‘Where did you go this summer?’→ He inquired where we had gone that
summer.
‘What time is it?’→ She asked us what the time was.
Appendix 2
COMMONLY USED ADVERBS
по большей части; по преимуществу; в большинстве;
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gradually
постепенно; последовательно
hence
значит; и поэтому; следовательно; таким образом; таким
в результате
immediately
немедленно, сразу же, тот час
in accordance
with
согласно; в соответствии; в согласии с; соответственно
in addition to
вдобавок, кроме того, к тому же
in compliance
with
в соответствии с; согласно
indeed
в самом деле, в действительности; безусловно
in order to
для того, чтобы….
in other words
другими словами, иначе говоря
in particular
в частности, в особенности
in terms of
в терминах, на языке, в смысле, с точки зрения
in this case
в этом случае
in turn
в свою очередь
it follows that
следует, что
it is evident that
явно, очевидно, что…
likewise
аналогично этому; таким же образом; точно так же
literally
буквально, дословно
moreover
сверх того; кроме того; к тому; более того
namely
а именно; то есть; именно
no matter
не имеет значения; неважно
obviously
явно, очевидно
on one hand
с одной стороны
on the other hand
с другой стороны
otherwise
в ином случае; в остальном; в противоположном случае;
particularly
особенно, в особенности
precisely
в точности; а именно, именно
readily
легко, просто, без труда
refer to
относиться к; отсылать к; обращать внимание на
regarding
в отношении, относительно; касательно
regardless
не обращая внимания ни на что, несмотря на
respectively
соответственно
simultaneously
одновременно
since
так как, поскольку, раз
so as
так, настолько, чтобы; так…. что
so that
так, таким образом, что;
that is
т.е.; то есть; а именно
then
после, потом, затем
therefore
по этой причине; вследствие этого; таким образом,
в силу вышесказанного, соответственно
путём; тем самым, отсюда; с этих пор; следовательно;
188
thus
так, таким образом, следующим образом
unlike
в отличие от
versus
в противоположность (чему-л.); в сопоставлении с (чемл.); в функции; как функция, в зависимости (от)
whatever
какой бы ни, любой
whatsoever
какой бы ни; что бы ни; какой бы то ни было;
какой угодно
whence
который, из какого места?; из какого источника?
whereas
хотя; принимая во внимание, хотя; несмотря на то; что
whereby
в результате чего; в соответствии с чем;
при помощи которого, в силу чего
whereupon
на чём; где; после чего; вследствие чего; тогда
while
в то же время; тогда как, а
ask for
to request something.
believe in
to feel confident about something or someone
blow out
to extinguish or make a flame stop burning.
blow up
to make something explode
break in
to enter a place illegally and with the use of force
break out
to start to happen
bring back
to return something you’ve borrowed.
bring up
to look after and influence a child until he or she is grown up
to mention a subject or start to talk about it
bump into
when you meet people by accident or unexpectedly.
call back
to call someone again.
call in
to ask somebody to come, invite
call off
to cancel an event that has been previously planned
carry on
1. to conduct, to perform, eg: a business, a conversation, a
2. to continue
check in
to register at a hotel or airport upon arrival
check out
to leave a hotel or other form of an accommodation after your
stay there
come back
to return to a place
cut down
1. to reduce, to make smaller
2. to deflate
come down
when you start to experience the symptoms of a disease or
Appendix 3
PHRASAL VERBS
negotiation
189
with
illness.
come up with
when you think of a solution, idea, plan, or excuse.
cut down
to do less of something or to use something in smaller amounts.
cut off
1. to slice
were saying
cut out
1. to remove by cutting
3. to delete, omit
deal with
when you do everything you must do to solve a problem or
complete.
die down
to become less strong, active, or violent
do away with
to dispose of something.
do over
to do something again in order to improve or correct mistakes.
do with
to make a connection between two or more things.
do without
to manage well without something or someone.
dress up
to wear special clothes for fun, or to put special clothes on
someone
fall apart
when something breaks all at once or piece by piece
fall behind
to move slower than others
fall for
when you have an intense attraction to something or someone
fall through
if things do not go as planned, or if a plan, deal or agreement
fails
fill in
to add personal information in the blank spaces of an official
document.
find out
to get information after trying to discover it
fool around
to waste time doing unimportant or silly things.
get away with
1. to succeed in leaving a place, escape from someone
2. to pursue without a punishment
get on
1. to deal with a job or situation or to make progress
3. to be successful in your job
get on with
to have a good relationship with someone
get over
1. to become well again after an illness
3. to overcome
get back to
to talk to someone or telephone them later in order
to answer a question or give them information
give away
1. to give something to someone without asking for any money,
2. to tell someone something that you should keep secret
2. to separate
to interrupt someone and stop them from finishing what they
3.
2. to shape
2. to continue doing something
2. to succeed in communicating ideas or information to other
people
rather than selling it to them
190
give out
1. to distribute, send out
2. to come to the end , be exhausted
give over
to stop doing or saying something that is annoying other people
give up
1. to stop doing smth
2. to abandon the attempt
go down with
to become ill, especially with an infectious disease
go up
to increase in price, amount, level
help out with
smth
to help someone because they are busy or have problems
hold on
to wait
hold up
to delay someone or something (is often passive in this
meaning)
hurry up
to do something quickly.
let down
to disappoint someone.
keep from
to stop yourself or other people from doing something.
keep on
to continue doing something.
let down
to disappoint someone.
look after
to take care of
look down on
to think that you are better than someone else
look for
to try to find something that you have lost, search for
look into
to investigate
look out
1. to search for and find a particular thing among
2. to warn someone that they are in danger
look up
1. to try to find information in a book, on a computer
2. to improve, get better
look up to
to admire or respect someone
make for
to go in the direction of a particular place, head for
make out
to be just able to see or hear something
make up
1. to combine together to form something, constitute
3. to produce a new story, song, game etc by thinking
mess up
when something is dirty or unorganized
mix up
to put or combine different things together so they’ll merge
successfully.
monkey around
with
to try to play with or repair a device that you have no true
knowledge about.
pass away
to die
pass out
to faint, lose consciousness
pass up
to neglect smth, not take advantage of smth
pick up
to lift something or someone up
put smth out
to extinguish, make a fire etc. stop burning
your possessions
2. to become friendly with someone again after you have had
an argument