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Файл:Иностранный язык в правоведении. Английский язык. Учебно-методическое пособие для магистратуры
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PART II
CRIME
ACTIVE VOCABULARY
1. breach of rules – нарушение правил
governing authority – органы власти
to prescribe a punishment –
предусматривать наказание
omission - бездействие
wrong-doer - правонарушитель
legal consequences – правовые
последствия
3. theft - кража
criminal damage – преступное
причинение ущерба
torts – деликты, правонарушения
victim – жертва, пострадавший
to claim damages – потребовать
возмещения ущерба, компенсацию
private injury – личный вред, ущерб
4. stealing - воровство
public-order crimes – преступления
против общественного порядка
6. indictable offences – преступления,
преследуемые по обвинительному акту
(часто с участием присяжных)
summary offences – преступления,
преследуемые в порядке суммарного
производства
either-way crimes – преступления с
альтернативным порядком судебного
производства, преследования (либо по
обвинительному акту, либо суммарно)
8. summary conviction – осуждение в
порядке упрощенного (суммарного)
производства, обвинительный приговор
без участия присяжных
summary trial – суммарное, упрощенное
судебное разбирательство
10. felonies – фелонии (тяжкие
преступления)
misdemeanours – мисдиминоры
(преступления средней и незначительной
степени тяжести)
arrestable offences – преступления, в
связи с которыми производится арест
non-arrestable offences – преступления,
при совершении которых арест не
предусмотрен
to abolish the old distinction –
упразднить, отменить прежнее
разделение (разграничение)
11. to require an arrest warrant –
требовать ордер на арест
12. to issue warrants – выдать ордер на
арест
a summons - повестка
to bring before the court – препроводить
в суд
to specify – специально устанавливать,
четко определять
particulars of the alleged offence –
конкретные детали, обстоятельства
заявленного преступления
to convict – осудить, вынести
обвинительный приговор
13. prosecutor – прокурор, обвинитель
obligatory element – обязательный
элемент
actus reus – объективная сторона
преступления (преступное деяние)
mens rea – субъективная сторона
преступления (преступный умысел, вина)
the intent – намерение, умысел
to commit a crime – совершить
преступление
14. offences of strict liability –
правонарушения с объективной
(абсолютной) ответственностью
unintentional – неумышленный,
непредумышленный
controversial aspect – противоречивый
аспект
undesirable consequences –
нежелательные последствия
to take precautions – предпринять меры
предосторожности
to avoid consequences – избежать
последствий
to be found guilty – быть признанным
виновным
15. public welfare offences –
преступления против общего блага
(общественного благополучия)
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recklessness – преступная халатность,
10
11
12
небрежность
to render ineffective – признать
неэффективным
16. deliberate intention – прямой умысел
to be suffice – быть достаточным
17. to secure conviction – добиться
осуждения, вынесения обвинительного
приговора
18. accidental or negligent behaviour –
случайное, неосторожное, небрежное
поведение
to foresee the consequences – предвидеть
последствия
to be aware of the circumstances –
осознавать, знать об обстоятельствах
READING
Прочитайте текст, опираясь на активную лексику темы.
1. The central category of criminal law is a crime. In different sources there are
different definitions of a crime. For instance, a crime can be defined as a breach of
rules or laws for which some governing authority can ultimately prescribe a
punishment10 or it can be seen as a wrongful act or omission, serious enough for
the wrong-doer to be punished by the rest of the community11. Another widely
accepted definition qualifies a crime as an act which is capable of being followed
by criminal proceedings and may result in punishment (Prof. G. Williams)12.
Nevertheless all these definitions show that the main difference between a crime
and all other offences lies not in the nature of the act but in legal consequences
that follow it.
2. In other words, criminal behaviour is seen as sufficiently serious or deviant or
immoral for the majority of society to ban it. At the same time, public opinion is
not set for all the times and legislation reflects changing habits and norms.
Moreover, new forms of potentially criminal activity arise, and the courts respond
to those as well. Thus, definitions of what is to be regarded as a criminal act can
change quite radically over years.
3. Furthermore, since the same act may be both a criminal offence and a civil
wrong, crimes have to be distinguished from torts. For example, theft and
criminal damage are crimes punishable by imprisonment, but they are also torts
for which the victim may claim damages. In general, one may say that a crime is
an offence against the public, while a tort is a private injury, although the actual
victim in either case may be an individual.
4. We mustn’t forget also that there are some acts which are crimes in one
country but not in another. For example, it is a crime to have more than one wife at
the same time in France, but not in Indonesia. That’s why there are quite a lot of
agreements among states as to which acts are criminal. But such acts as stealing,
www.wikipedia.com
Amy Krois-Lindner, Matt Firth. Introduction to International Legal English. A course for
classroom or self-study use. Cambridge University Press, 2008., p. 40.
G. Williams. The Fluid State: International Law and National Legal Systems. Federation Press,
2005.
72
physical attack or damaging somebody’s property will be unlawful in all countries
though the way of dealing with people suspected of these crimes may be different.
5. Looking at classifications of crimes we can see that they also vary
significantly.
One of the most recent classifications of crimes is the classification of types of
crimes depending on the object of harm into: offences against the person, offences
against property, offences against the state, public-order crimes, business or
corporate crimes and some other types of crimes.
6. Another way of classification crimes is by the manner of trial. Criminal
offences may be broadly divided into three main classes: indictable offences,
summary offences and either-way crimes. This classification is typical of Great
Britain first of all.
7. Indictable offences are the most serious ones. They are tried by a jury and are
punishable by the longest prison terms. They include murder, rape, robbery and
can only be tried in the Crown Court in Great Britain.
8. Summary offences are the least serious or minor offences (punishable on
summary conviction), such as speeding and drunk-driving. Summary trials are
heard in magistrates’ courts, as a common rule.
9. Either-way offences can be heard in magistrates’ courts or Crown Court.
Examples of either way offences include theft, drug offences and less serious
physical violence. A magistrate can decide that an either-way offence is serious
enough that it must be heard in the Crown Court where the penalties prescribed can
be more severe. If, however, a magistrate decides that an either-way offence can be
heard as a summary trial, the defendant can choose to move the trial to the Crown
Court.
10. In common law countries, originally, the law divided crimes into felonies (the
graver crimes generally punishable with death) and misdemeanours (the lesser
crimes punishable with fines or short imprisonment). But in Great Britain the
Criminal Law Act 1967 introduced the concept of “arrestable” and “nonarrestable” offences, thus abolishing the old distinction between felonies
(serious crimes) and misdemeanours (minor offences).
11. An arrestable offence is one for which no specific arrest warrant is
required; a police officer can arrest without a magistrate’s warrant for a suspected
crime carrying a maximum of five year imprisonment or where the penalty is fixed
by law as is in the case of murder, treason and piracy with violence.
12. Otherwise, however, when an offence is a non-arrestable one warrants can
be issued when the defendant has failed to answer a summons and the magistrates
think it essential that he should be present at the hearing. The summons is directed
to a constable and orders him to arrest the person named in it and bring him
before the court. It must contain particulars of the alleged offence.
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13. In conclusion one more important aspect of criminal law should be specified.
To convict and punish an offender for most crimes prosecutors have to prove all
elements of a crime or corpus delicti (note that in English and American systems
there are two elements to be proved while in Russian system there are four of
them). The first obligatory element in all legal systems, actus reus, refers to the
criminal act itself. The second, mens rea, refers to the intent to commit a crime –
‘a guilty mind’.
14. However, there is a small number of crimes for which no mens rea or only a
limited form of it needs to be shown. To be even more specific, in such cases
prosecutors do not have to prove the intent. These offences are said to be of ‘strict
liability’ and they are punished as crimes even though they may have been
unintentional. The most controversial aspect of this kind of offence is that the
defendant who knew about the possible undesirable consequences and had taken
precautions to avoid them may still be found guilty, for example drunk driving
or speeding, accidental pollution of the environment.
15. Strict liability offences are sometimes called 'public welfare offences’
involving laws concerning public health and safety. They are most commonly
found in statutes dealing with, for example, the sale of alcohol, food and drugs; the
prevention of pollution; offences relating to road traffic. The usual penalty for
crimes of strict liability is a fine. The underlying reason for removing the need to
show mens rea for these offences is that to require the prosecution to establish the
defendant's intent or recklessness would render such legislation largely
ineffective and unenforceable.
16. In other words in the overwhelming majority of cases it must be shown that
the accused has committed an act or omission which is criminal in nature.
Secondly, it must be shown that he intended to commit an offence (though it may
not always be a matter of deliberate intention – inattentiveness, recklessness or
some other state of mind will suffice to constitute mens rea).
17. Thus, roughly speaking, actus reus is the physical element of a crime, mens
rea is the mental element. A conviction cannot be secured unless it is shown that
both factors were present.
18. To sum up, criminal law as a general rule does not punish accidental or
negligent behaviour; it is almost always necessary to prove that the person either
intended or foresaw the consequences of his action or was aware of the
circumstances that make it criminal.
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VOCABULARY FOCUS
1.wrongful
a) behaviour
2. criminal
b) victim
3. legal
c) term
4. deviant
d) crimes
5. civil
e) term
6. private
f) proceedings
7. actual
g) intention
8. indictable
h) aspects
9. summary
i) wrong
10. either-way
j) act or omission
11. prison
k) trial
12. minor
l) consequences
13. deliberate
m) conviction
14. negligent
n) offences
15. controversial
o) injury
1. breach of
a) the public
2. the difference between
b) the alleged crime
3. nature of
c) strict liability
4. forms of
d) warrant
5. offences against
e) to avoid consequences
6. agreements among
f) crimes and other offences
7. arrest
g) criminal activities
8. particulars of
h) rules
9. offences of
i) states
10. precautions
j) the act
1. to prescribe
a) in the Crown Court
2. to result in
b) a warrant
3. to reflect
c) the jury
4. to claim
d) consequences
5. to be tried by
e) changing norms
6. to be heard in
f) punishments
7. to be punishable by
g) at the hearing
8. to abolish
h) damages
9. to arrest without
i) summons
10.to issue
j) imprisonment
11.to be present
k) guilty (innocent)
1. Соотнесите слова из колонок так, чтобы получились
терминологические сочетания из текста, переведите составленные
фразы на русский язык:
A.
B.
C.
75
12.to direct
l) punishments
13.to foresee
m) circumstances of the act
14.to find
n) the distinction
15.to be aware of
o) a warrant
READING AND SPEAKING
1. Выскажите свое мнение по поводу следующих утверждений.
Аргументируйте свой ответ (доводы могут быть взяты из текста).
Начните ответ с одного из следующих выражений:
а) ) выражения полного согласия: “It goes without saying”, “Exactly so”;
б) выражения абсолютного несогласия: “Nothing of the kind”, “Surely not”;
в) выражения неуверенности и неясности позиции: “I’m not quite sure
about it”, “That’s hard to say …”
1) Differences between a crime and all other offences lie first of all in the nature
of acts.
2) It is not difficult to give a precise definition of the term “crime”.
3) Wrongful acts can be strictly defined as crimes or as torts.
4) States must reach agreements among themselves about what acts to consider
criminal.
5) All the classifications of crimes are rather similar in the grounds on the basis
of which they are categorized.
6) When a person is being arrested there must be a special paper authorizing
police to carry out the arrest.
7) The elements of corpus delicti that are to be proved in court depend on the
category and seriousness of crimes.
8) Strict-liability offences break one of the main principles of the criminal law
which states that all elements of the crime must be proved beyond reasonable
doubts before the person can be found guilty.
2. Ответьте на вопросы по тексту. Постарайтесь отвечать в опоре на
активную лексику темы, не глядя в текст:
1) What do you think the most suitable definition of the term “crime” is?
2) What distinguishes criminal acts from other offences (wrongful acts)?
3) Why can definitions of a crime change quite radically over years?
4) Why do different states reach a lot of agreements in the field of the criminal
law?
5) What are the most typical classifications of crimes for most countries? What
are grounds of each of these classifications?
6) What are main differences between summary and indictable offences?
7) What do ‘arrestable’ and ‘non-arrestable’ offences mean?
8) Enumerate main rules under which a warrant is usually issued.
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9) Name elements of a crime that must be proved in order to convict an
offender. What does each element mean? Do you know what elements of crime
are required to find the defendant guilty in Russia?
10) What do strict liability offences mean? In what way are they usually
punished? What distinguishes them from all other crimes?
11) What kind of behavior is usually punished according to the criminal law?
3. Выберите из текста наиболее удачную с вашей точки зрения
классификацию преступлений, обоснуйте свой выбор, отметив
следующее:
насколько универсальна данная классификация для разных стран;
насколько учтены основные признаки преступлений в ней;
насколько видна разница между преступлениями и иными видами
правонарушений по данной классификации;
насколько существенно основание для подразделения преступлений на
разные типы;
существует ли необходимость в иных классификациях и под.
TEST YOURSELF
Прежде чем перейти к изучению следующей темы, проверьте, запомнили
ли вы значения и смысл следующих ключевых терминов и
терминологических сочетаний по данной теме:
wrongful acts
wrongful omission
a wrongdoer
crimes and torts
a victim
a criminal
a prosecutor
offences
indictable offences
summary offences
either-way offences
arrestable offences
strict liability (public welfare)
offences
felonies
misdemeanors
serious (grave) crimes
minor (lesser) crimes
to arrest
an arrest
an arrest warrant
to issue a warrant
a summons
non-arrestable offences
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ADDITIONAL READING
DISTINCTION BETWEEN CRIMINAL AND CIVIL BRANCHES OF LAW
The most useful classification of legal liability for practical purposes is into civil
and criminal. The basic difference is that an infringement of criminal law renders
you liable to prosecution and, if you are convicted, you are liable to be punished;
an infraction of the civil law means that the injured party may sue against you and,
if you are found liable, you are likely to have to pay a monetary compensation
called damages or have some other remedy awarded against you.
One important reason for being able to distinguish between criminal and civil
liability is that you can always compromise a claim in relation to the civil law, that
is, you can bargain with the claimant (the person or company which is bringing the
action against you) with a view to avoiding court action.
Criminal law typically is enforced by the government, unlike the civil law which
may be enforced by private parties. Criminal law involves prosecution by the
government of a person for an act that has been classified as a crime. Civil cases,
on the other hand, involve individuals and organizations seeking to resolve legal
disputes. In a criminal case, the state, through a prosecutor, initiates the case, while
in a civil case the victim brings the suit. Persons convicted of a crime may be
incarcerated, fined, or both. However, persons found liable in a civil case may only
have to give up property or pay money, but are not incarcerated.
In criminal cases the burden of proof is often on the prosecutor to persuade the trier
(judge or jury) that the accused is guilty beyond reasonable doubt of every element
of the crime charged. If the prosecutor fails to prove this, a verdict of not guilty is
rendered. This standard of proof contrasts with civil cases, where the claimant
generally needs to show a defendant is liable on the balance of probabilities (more
than 50% probable). It can be also referred to as the preponderance of the
evidence.
It is also worth mentioning that the same incident may sometimes lead to both a
criminal prosecution and an action in tort.
But there are several general defences which may excuse the accused from
criminal responsibility:
- lack of age (if an offender is under 14 he is considered to be incapable of
committing a crime);
- self-defence (when people have good reasons to believe they are in danger of
serious injury or death, they can use force to protect themselves);
- defence of family members (courts will not punish someone for using force to
rescue a family member from attack if there was a good reason to believe the
victim was in danger of severe bodily injury or death);
- insanity (but everyone is presumed sane until the contrary is proved);
78
- duress by threats or duress of circumstances;
- automatism (it may arise as the result of a reflex action or concussion);
- entrapment (if a law enforcement officer induces a law-abiding citizen to commit
a crime, which would not have been committed without the involvement of the
officer).
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UNIT 5
CIVIL LAW. TORT LAW. CONTRACT LAW.
LEAD-IN
The term “Civil Law” has several meanings. The term may refer to:
1. Civil law as the legal system (or Continental law, or Roman law), which is
derived from Roman law historically; it contrasts with common law.
2. Civil law as the legal area, which is a branch of Continental law and
constitutes the general part of private law; it contrasts with public law in
general. And at the same time, Civil law is a branch of law which consists of
non-criminal law, dealing with the private relations between members of a
community; it contrasts with criminal law, military law and ecclesiastical
law (which are branches of public law).
3. Civil law as Municipal law is the domestic law of a state; it contrasts with
International law. (www.wikipedia.com)
In this unit, civil law will be considered as a branch of law, which constitutes the
general part of private laws and regulates non-criminal conduct.
PART I
CIVIL LAW
ACTIVE VOCABULARY
1. nonprofessionals’ perception – взгляд
(восприятие) с непрофессиональной
точки зрения
rights and duties – права и обязанности
legal individuals – юридические лица
limited liability company – общество с
ограниченной ответственностью
as between – в отношениях между
2. civil action – 1) гражданский судебный
процесс (тяжба), 2) иск
compensation for some loss – возмещение
(компенсация) ущерба, убытков
to suffer loss – нести убытки
plaintiff – здесь: истец
to be awarded damages – получить
компенсацию (возмещение ущерба)
a side of a dispute – сторона спора
defendant – здесь: ответчик
probate law – наследственное право
3. Media Law – законодательство о
средствах массой информации
Consumer Protection Law – закон о
защите прав потребителей
4. enforcement – 1) принудительное
применение (закона), 2) приведение в
действие (принудительно),
3) принуждение к выполнению
(обещаний, требований)
agreements - соглашения
to be implied - подразумеваться
5. law of torts – деликтное право
tort – деликт, проступок, гражданское
правонарушение
breach of contract – нарушение условий
договора
breach of trust – нарушение доверенным
лицом своих обязательств,
предусмотренных договором
action for damages – иск о возмещении
ущерба
to undertake – брать на себя
(обязательства, ответственность)
negligence – небрежность, халатность
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