Добавил:
ivanov666
Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Предмет:
Файл:Иностранный язык в правоведении. Английский язык. Учебно-методическое пособие для магистратуры
.pdf
counter offer – встречное (контр-)
13
предложение
5. to estimate in money – оценить в
денежном эквиваленте
6. legally binding agreement –
соглашение, обязательное к исполнению
7. valid – имеющий юридическую силу,
действительный, действующий
price – цена
to insert – вставить, внести (исправления)
to exclude - исключить
party’s liability – ответственность одной
из сторон
vague – нечеткий, неясный, размытый
indefinite contract – нечеткий договор,
без четко определенных условий
8. an express contract – «выраженный»
договор (четко фиксирующий
обязанности и намерения сторон)
an implied contract – договор,
вытекающий из действий сторон
(подразумеваемый договор)
real property – недвижимое имущество
9. to breach the contract – нарушить
условия договора
to file a lawsuit – подать иск
legal remedies – правовые (судебные)
средства защиты
specific performance – судебное решение
об исполнении договорных обязательств
to perform the contract – исполнить
условия договора
10. defences – 1) аргументы защиты;
2) смягчающие обстоятельства,
обстоятельства, освобождающие от
ответственности
to escape – избежать
obligations – обязательства, обязанности
fraud in the inducement –
мошенничество, введение в заблуждение
относительно намерений
duress – противозаконное принуждение
под угрозой насилия
legal or mental capacity –
правоспособность или вменяемость
(“умственная способность”)
to enable – давать возможность
11. for the benefit of a third party – в
интересах сторонних лиц
beneficiary contract – договор в пользу
третьего лица
to transfer rights – передать права,
уступить права
assignment of rights – передача,
переуступка прав
delegation of duties – передача,
переуступка (делегация) обязанностей
assignee – сторона, получившая право
delegate – лицо, которому передали
обязанности по договору
13. to be entitled – получить право, быть
в праве
15. to discharge (invalidate) contracts –
расторгать (признавать
недействительными) договоры
READING
Прочитайте текст, опираясь на активную лексику темы.
1. Contract law deals with promises creating legal rights and obligations that
may be enforced in court. A promise becomes an enforceable contract when
some requirements are satisfied. In most legal systems13, a contract is generally
formed when there is an offer by one party (offeror) that is accepted by the other
party (offeree) with the exchange of legally sufficient (valuable) consideration.
You should keep in mind that in these systems one-side promise to do something
It should be noted that, in the United States contracts for the sale of goods are governed by the
Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) and in the United Kingdom by the Sale of Goods Act and
therefore the above common law contractual principles may have been supplemented or replaced by
these statutory provisions. In Russia Federation the mentioned contracts are regulated according to
the Civil Code of the RF together with a whole range of appropriate laws and additional regulations.
91
does not lead to the formation of an enforceable contract, as it lacks consideration,
and a gift or donation does not generally count as consideration.
2. Hence, the equation learned by law students of these countries is: offer +
acceptance + consideration = contract.
3. An offer may be defined as a statement or definite intention on the part of
the person or organization (offeror) to reach an agreement (contract) on specified
terms with the other person or organization (offeree) to whom or which it is
addressed. A real offer must be distinguished from “invitations to treat” or
advertisements, where a party is merely inviting to do (to buy) something that can
be freely accepted or rejected.
4. An acceptance one may regard as an unconditional assent to all terms of
the offer made by the offeree to the offeror. The offeree must accept all the terms
of the contract unconditionally that is without introducing any new terms (or
counter offers). Therefore, the law regards a counter offer as a rejection of the
offer. A counter offer does not serve to form a contract unless the counter offer is
accepted by the original offeror.
5. By consideration the law means something of value that can be estimated in
money. Valuable consideration must be given by the person to whom a promise
was given. In this case, consideration is a legal term to describe something a
person has given, or done, or agreed not to do, when making the contract.
6. In other words, a contract is a legally binding agreement between parties
on certain terms. It is a form of exchange: one party receives in return for his
action or promise something from the other party and this something is referred to
as the consideration.
7. Besides for the promise to become an enforceable (valid) contract, the
parties must agree on essential terms, such as price or subject matter, etc. Note that
a term may be inserted into the contract to exclude or restrict one party’s
liability. Nevertheless, court will enforce a vague or indefinite contract under
certain circumstances, such as when the conduct of the parties, as opposed to the
written instrument, manifests sufficient certainty as to the terms of the agreement.
8. An enforceable agreement may be made in either written or oral words (an
express contract) or by conduct or some combination of conduct and words (an
implied contract). Though, in some jurisdictions, certain types of contracts must
be only in writing or they are not valid (e.g. the sale of real property such as
land).
9. When a party does not do what is required under a contract, that party is said
to breach the contract. The other party may file a lawsuit against the breaching
party for the breach of contract. The non-breaching party (sometimes called the
injured party) may try to get a court to award damages for the breach. Damages
refer to money, which the court orders the breaching party to pay in compensation
(to the non-breaching party). Other legal remedies include specific performance,
92
where a court orders the breaching party to perform the contract (that is to do
1. a contract
a) is an unconditional assent to all terms of the offer made by the
offeree to the offeror
2. an offer
b) means something of value that can be estimated in money
3. an acceptance
c) may permit a party to escape his/her obligations under the contract
in a contractual dispute, for example, illegality of the subject
matter
4. consideration
d) is money, which the court orders the breaching party who does not
do what is required under a contract to pay in compensation (to
the non-breaching party)
what is promised to do).
10. In a contractual dispute certain defences to the formation of a contract may
permit a party to escape his/her obligations under the contract. For example,
illegality of the subject matter, fraud in the inducement, duress and the lack of
legal or mental capacity to form a contract; all these enable a party to cast a
doubt upon the validity of a contract.
11. In some cases, individuals/companies who are not a party to a particular
contract may nevertheless have enforceable rights under the contract. For example,
contracts made for the benefit of a third party (third-party beneficiary
contracts) may be enforceable by the third party. An original party to a contract
may also subsequently transfer his rights/duties under the contract to a third
party, which is defined as an assignment of rights or delegation of duties. This
third party is called the assignee in an assignment of rights and the delegate in a
delegation of duties.
12. To sum up, it should be mentioned, that there are as a rule three basic
elements in the formation of a valid contract. First, the parties must have reached
agreement (offer and acceptance); secondly, they must intend to be legally bound;
and thirdly, both parties must have provided valuable consideration.
13. Then most systems of law have similar requirements about offer and
acceptance, legal intentions and considerations. They consider the capacity of
contractors as well, that is whether they are entitled to form contracts.
14. Note that in English law there are some special rules if one of the contractors
is a company, an individual under the age of 18, or insane.
15. Besides, legal systems have rules for interpreting contracts in which one or
more contractors made a mistake or was / were pressed or tricked into making an
agreement; rules for dealing with illegal contracts; and rules how to discharge
(invalidate) contracts.
VOCABULARY FOCUS
1. Соотнесите термины с их определениями или описанием сути данных
понятий, переведите получившиеся предложения на русский язык.
93
5. an offeror
e) takes place where an original party to a contract may subsequently
transfer his rights/duties under the contract to a third party
6. an offeree
f) takes place where a court orders the breaching party to perform
the contract (that is to do what is promised to do under the
contract)
7. a breach of
contract
g) is an enforceable agreement formed when there is an offer by one
party (offeror) that is accepted by the other party (offeree) with the
exchange of legally sufficient (valuable) consideration
8. a non-
breaching party
h) is a person or organization to whom or which an offer is addressed
and that is ready to accept this offer
9. damages
i) is a party (an individual or organisation) of a potentially
enforceable agreement that makes some definite offer to the other
party (an individual or organisation)
10. specific
performance
j) a statement or definite intention on the part of the person or
organization to reach an agreement (contract) on specified terms
with the other person or organization to whom or which it is
addressed
11. defences to the
formation of a
contract
k) is sometimes called the injured party that may try to get a court to
award damages for the breach of a certain contract
12. assignment of
rights
(delegation of
duties)
l) takes place when one party of a valid contract does not do what is
required under this contract
READING AND SPEAKING
1. Подберите подходящий по смыслу ответ из предложенных
вариантов и обоснуйте свой выбор двумя - тремя предложениями
(можно в опоре на текст):
1. A promise becomes an enforceable contract when:
a) there is one-side promise to do something;
b) there is an offer by one party that is accepted by the other party with the
exchange of legally sufficient (valuable) consideration
c) parties agree upon the price and subject matter of the contract.
2. By consideration the law means:
a) something of value that can be estimated in money;
b) a statement or an intention of one party to reach an agreement with the
other party;
c) an unconditional assent to all terms of the offer made by the offeree.
3. For an agreement to be valid (enforceable):
a) it must be made in written form by all means;
b) it may be made by some combination of conduct and written agreement;
c) may be made in any unconditional form.
4. Which of the following is not considered a basic element of any contract:
a) an offer;
b) an acceptance;
94
c) a counter offer;
d) consideration.
5. What is always true about a counter offer?
a) it is made by the buyer;
b) it is made by the seller;
c) it terminates (прекращает действие) the previous offer;
d) the previous offer is still valid.
6. If one of the parties breaks the terms of the contract it is called:
a) assignment of rights;
b) delegation of duties;
c) specific performance of a contract;
d) a breach of contract.
7. Individuals that are not parties of a contract may nevertheless get benefits
from it:
a) if one of the parties transferred its rights (or duties) under the contract to
the third party;
b) if the contract was drawn up in the presence of the third party;
c) if the third party paid to one of the parties in order to enter the contract.
8. In the law of contract there are special rules:
a) if one of the contractors is single (not married);
b) if one of the contractors is under the age of 18;
c) if contractors are spouses.
2. Ответьте на вопросы по содержанию текста, постарайтесь
отвечать в опоре на активную лексику темы, не глядя в текст:
1) What are main elements of a valid contract? Explain the meaning of each of
them.
2) Name forms / ways in (by) which contracts are usually formed.
3) What is a breach of contract? What are its consequences?
4) What kinds of legal remedies do parties have in case of a breach of contract?
5) What can permit a party to escape his/her obligations under the contract?
6) When can a non-contractor get enforceable rights under the particular
contract?
7) Give examples when some special rules are provided for in the contract law.
3. Подготовьте аргументы, опираясь на содержание текстов 1-й и 3-й
частей раздела, для участия в обсуждении на тему «Основные различия и
сходства между двумя основными отраслями гражданского права –
деликтным правом и договорным правом».
Начинайте свои высказывания речевыми оборотами: I think…; To my
mind…; In my opinion…; As a matter of fact…; As far as I know…
Основные пункты для обсуждения:
95
Spheres and objectives of regulation / activity
Basic institutions, concepts of the branch of law
Legal remedies used in the branch of law
Principles of functioning
Legal consequences in cases of breach of legal norms of the branch of law…
TEST YOURSELF
Прежде чем перейти к изучению следующей темы, проверьте, запомнили
ли вы значения и смысл следующих ключевых терминов и
терминологических сочетаний по данной теме:
a contract
an enforceable contract
a valid contract
an express contract
an implied contract
a breach of contract
to break a contract
to enter a contract
to perform a contract
to discharge (invalidate) a contract
an offer
a real offer
a counter offer
an acceptance
a consideration
an offeror
an offeree
an agreement
to reach an agreement
a legally binding agreement
specified terms of a contract
to introduce new terms
rights and obligations under a contract
a third party
to transfer rights
to delegate duties
assignment of rights
delegation of duties
96
UNIT 6
14
CRIMINAL PROCEDURE
LEAD-IN
Criminal procedure is the body of law that sets out the rules, principles and
standards that courts follow in judicial proceedings where different criminal acts
and matters are involved. These rules govern:
how suspected offenders are apprehended;
the timing and manner of investigation of crimes;
how suspects are charged with a crime;
types of applications, motions, orders and other papers required by the
procedural rules;
the conduct of the trial;
the process of sentencing;
the types of punishments in case of the defendant’s conviction;
enforcement of judgments;
methods of filing appeals against the conviction or the sentence;
functioning of courts and court officials and some other aspects.
But shortly speaking, criminal procedure14 refers to the adjudication process of the
criminal law. Though criminal procedure differs dramatically depending on the
jurisdiction, the process generally begins with a formal criminal charge and results
in the conviction or acquittal of the defendant.
Besides, it is worth mentioning, that in most common law countries the
adversarial system is generally adopted. While at the same time on the continent of
Europe among most civil law systems (i.e. those deriving from Roman law or the
Napoleonic Code) the inquisitorial system may be used for some types of cases.
In the adversarial system there is so called two-sided structure under which
criminal trial courts operate where the prosecution opposes the defence. Justice is
done when the most effective adversary is able to convince the judge or jury that
his or her perspective on the case is correct.
In this unit we shall analyze the type of criminal procedure that takes place in the
majority of common law countries.
www.wikipedia.com
97
ACTIVE VOCABULARY
CRIMINAL PROCEDURE
PART I
1. to be regarded – считаться,
рассматриваться
wrongful acts – противоправные деяния
omission – бездействие
to punish – наказывать
punishment -наказание
objectives – цели, предназначение
prosecution – уголовное преследование в
судебном порядке
to commit criminal acts – совершать
уголовные деяния
to cover all the steps – охватывать все
стадии
satisfied judgment – реализованное,
введенное в действие судебное решение
to refer to – относиться к
proceedings – 1) судебное
разбирательство, процесс;
2) судопроизводство; 3) процессуальные
нормы
enforcement of the judgment –
исполнение, приведение в действие
судебного решения
common law – система общего (англосаксонского) права
investigation – расследование
a suspect – подозреваемый
booking – процедура записи данных о
задержанном, фиксирование совершения
преступления
official charges – официальные
обвинения
to remand in custody – заключить под
стражу, оставить под стражей
to remand on bail – заключить под залог
(выпустить под)
an information – обвинительное
заключение, выдвижение обвинений
to issue indictment – вынести решение о
предъявлении обвинения, о принятии
обвинительного акта
preliminary hearing – предварительное
судебное слушание
arraignment – привлечение к суду,
предъявление обвинения по суду
jury – 1) суд присяжных, 2) состав суда
присяжных
opening statements – вступительные речи
(юристов)
sides at the trial – стороны судебного
разбирательства
presentation of evidence – представление
доказательств
closing statements – заключительные
речи
jury deliberation on a verdict –
обсуждение присяжными вердикта
sentencing – вынесение приговора
2. commission of a crime – совершение
преступления
law enforcement agencies –
правоохранительные органы
forensic science – криминалистика, наука
судебной экспертизы
identification by fingerprints –
идентификация по отпечаткам пальцев
bloodstains – следы крови
3. essential – существенный, значимый
to indict – предъявить официальное
обвинение
sufficient legally admissible evidence –
достаточные, допустимые доказательства
to convince - убеждать
to secure – обеспечивать
interference with the freedom –
посягательство (вмешательство) на
личную свободу
an innocent person – невиновное лицо
to be subject to – подлежать…,
подчиняться
evidence obtained in breach of
legislation – доказательство, полученные
с нарушением (в обход) норм
законодательства (незаконными
способами)
to be ruled inadmissible – признаваться
недопустимым
4. a search – обыск
premises – помещение (обычно с
прилегающими постройками и участком)
vehicles – транспортные средства
to state reasons – указать причины,
основания
a search warrant – ордер на обыск
98
to carry out a search – произвести обыск
to seize evidence – изъять доказательства
bank accounts – банковские счета
to have reasonable causes – иметь веские
основания
5. an arrestable offence – преступления, в
связи с которыми производится арест
to be detained in police custody –
содержаться под стражей (под арестом) в
полиции
seriousness of a crime – тяжесть
преступления
booking – процедура записи данных о
задержанном, фиксирование совершения
преступления
6. to take into custody – взять под стражу
relevant personal information –
относящаяся к делу личная информация
7. exonerating evidence – доказательства,
исключающие вину
law-enforcement personnel – персонал,
сотрудники правоохранительных органов
right to the assistance of a lawyer – право
на содействие, консультацию юриста
(адвоката)
interrogating (interview) – допрос, опрос
non-means-tested and free services –
бесплатные услуги, предоставляемые без
проверки материального положения
8. to be entitled – иметь право
to remain silent – хранить, сохранять
молчание
to avoid incriminating oneself – избежать
само-обвинения (оговора)
defence – 1) защита, 2) средства,
аргументы защиты; 3) сторона защиты
confession - признание
to be admitted in evidence –
признаваться, допускаться в качестве
доказательства
oppression – давление
tortures – пытки
threats – угрозы
9. a detained person – задержанное лицо
minor offences – незначительные,
небольшой степени тяжести
правонарушения
to caution the offender – предупредить,
предостеречь правонарушителя
to admit the offence – признаться в
совершении правонарушения
10. the accused – обвиняемый
to be served with a summons – получить
повестку
pending a trial – в ожидании суда
to appear on the appointed date – явиться
в назначенный день
unconditional bail – залог,
предоставленный без условий
to be released on condition –
освобождаться на определенных
условиях
conditional bail – залог, предоставленный
на определенных условиях
to obstruct justice – препятствовать
отправлению правосудия
to abscond – скрываться, совершить
побег
to deny a bail – отказать в залоге
11. to institute criminal proceedings –
возбудить уголовное дело, приступить к
уголовному разбирательству
to proceed a case – приступить к
процессуальным действиям по делу
conviction – 1) обвинительный приговор,
вынесение…, признание подсудимого
виновным; 2) осуждение; 3) судимость
to reflect the sentiment of the
community – отражать общественное
мнение
to infringe – посягать на, преступать
(закон)
12. penalties - наказания
to be sustained by the evidence –
подкрепляться, подтверждаться
доказательствами
to offer a plea of guilty – сделать
заявление о своей виновности, признать
себя виновным
to reduce charges – сократить объем и
степень, смягчить предъявляемые
обвинения
‘plea bargaining’ – переговоры о
заключении сделки о признании вины
обвиняемым, договоренность суда с
подсудимым о признании им вины
13. disclosure of materials – оглашение
содержания материалов, предъявление
материалов дела
to rely on – полагаться на, опираться на
to outline – изложить, перечислить,
обрисовать
99
READING
Прочитайте текст, опираясь на активную лексику темы.
1. Both Criminal Law and Criminal Procedure are designed to protect the state
and its people as a whole from any sort of criminal harm as a crime is regarded as
a wrongful act or omission, serious enough for the wrongdoer to be punished by
the rest of the community. Main objectives of these branches, therefore, are
prosecution and punishment of persons having committed criminal acts.
The term "procedure" covers all the steps necessary to turn a legal right into a
satisfied judgment. It does not merely refer to the trial itself; the proceedings
prior to trial take much time as well as proceedings after the trial, for example the
appellate procedure and enforcement of the judgment. That is why the basic steps
of typical criminal procedure in common law legal systems are:
1) Pre-trial steps:
Pre-arrest investigation of a crime;
Arrest of the suspect;
Booking;
Post-arrest investigation;
Official charges (the very beginning of the prosecution) with the
subsequent remand in custody or on bail;
Information prepared by the prosecutor or indictment issued by the
grand jury;
Preliminary hearing for arraignment;
2) Trial:
Selection of the jury (if it is a jury trial);
Opening statements of the lawyers for both sides;
Presentation of evidence;
Closing statements of the lawyers;
Judge’ s instructions to the jury;
Jury deliberation on a verdict (if it is a trial by jury);
Sentencing;
3) After-trial process:
Appeals (if there is no appeal the matter is concluded by enforcement
of the judgment).
2. Pre-arrest investigation of a crime and arrest of a suspect. Once the
commission of a crime has been discovered, it is necessary to identify the suspect
and gather evidence. In the investigation of serious crimes, law enforcement
agencies are helped by forensic science with its array of techniques, such as
identification by fingerprints, analysis of bloodstains, hair samples, etc.
3. It is essential that the police gather sufficient legally admissible evidence to
indict the person before the court, that is, convince the court that the suspect is
guilty. In order to secure the necessary evidence, the police employ a variety of
powers and procedures; because these potentially involve interference with the
100
Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]