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8) plaintiff (defence)…
з) юрист, специализирующийся по вопросам
несостоятельности (банкротства) предприятий
9) state … general
и) юристы в судах первой инстанции
c)
clients
1) to advise…
а) предлагать клиентам юр. консультации
2) to represent…
б) требования (запросы) клиентов
3) on behalf of…
в) оказывать клиентам помощь
4) to assist …
г) представлять интересы клиентов
5) to offer advice to …
д) консультировать клиентов
6) demands of…
е) от лица (имени) клиентов
d)
to handle
(deal with)
1)…the enforcement of
criminal work
а) иметь дело с законами, регулирующими
наследственные вопросы
2)…any area of law
б) иметь дело с вопросами усыновления
(удочерения)
3) …contract
negotiations
в) заниматься проблемами сопровождения
сделок
4)…routine litigation
(lawsuits)
г) заниматься определенными видами
личного (телесного) вреда
5)…laws affecting
inheritance
д) сталкиваться с проблемами исполнения
правовых норм уголовного права
6) …certain types of
personal injury
е) заниматься вопросами трудоустройства (и
другими вопросами трудового права)
7) …employment issues
ж) работать в любой правовой сфере
8) …child custody
cases
з) иметь дело с ведением переговоров по
различным соглашениям
9) …business deals
и) заниматься обычными судебными тяжбами
e)
advocate(s)
1) the status of…
а) адвокаты, предоставляющие консультации
частным лицам
2) college of…
б) адвокаты, выступающие на стороне
защиты
3) …counseling people
в) адвокаты, представляющие частные
предприятия
4)…drafting legal
documents
г) адвокаты, представляющие ответчика или
истца
5) …representing
plaintiffs or defendants
д) адвокаты, представляющие интересы
постоянных клиентов
6) …providing defence
in proceedings
е) статус (квалификация) адвоката
7) …representing
private businesses
ж) коллегия адвокатов
8) …representing
permanent clients
з) юристы, составляющие юридические
документы
31
READING AND SPEAKING
1. Ответьте на следующие вопросы:
1) What is an attorney? What do you think the most suitable definition of this
term is?
2) Show the contrast between career options that lawyers have and fields of
specialization that they choose.
3) Why are there so many classifications of attorneys into certain types?
4) What types of attorneys are there depending upon demands of employers?
Give specific features typical of each of the named type.
5) Give some examples of attorneys together with their duties who specialize in
some certain narrow field or branch of law.
6) What are types of attorneys depending on their roles in court proceedings?
7) What is the role of attorneys in the enforcement of criminal law?
8) In what way do attorneys get their judicial offices (those of judges)?
9) What are law clerks? What are their functions?
10) What kind of education can a person get in order to enter the legal
profession in Russia?
11) On what conditions can a lawyer represent persons brought to trial?
12) In what cases (or types of legal work) is not the status of the advocate
required in Russia?
13) What organisations do lawyers in private practice belong to in Russia (as a
general rule)?
14) What are principles of organization and work of colleges of advocates?
15) Describe American-like types of legal firms operating in Russia?
16) What are peculiarities typical of lawyers employed by certain enterprises,
agencies or ministries?
2. Выберите одну из категорий (специализаций) юристов, работающих в
США или России, и подготовьте ее детальное описание. Ответ можно
построить по следующим пунктам:
1) Legal education
2) Types of legal work
3) Their title (specific name)
4) Offices (agencies or firms) where they work
5) Career mobility (options)
6) Relations with clients
32
TEST YOURSELF
Прежде чем перейти к изучению следующей темы, проверьте, запомнили
ли вы значения и смысл следующих ключевых терминов и
терминологических сочетаний по данной теме:
attorneys
sole practitioners
estate planning attorneys
family law attorneys
labour attorneys
tax attorneys
bankruptcy attorneys
transactional attorneys
trial attorneys
appellate attorneys
plaintiff attorneys
defence attorneys
state attorney general
law clerks
to draft legal documents
to represent clients in court
to handle some branch of law
a college of advocates
the executive board of a college of advocates
legal aid offices
to render legal assistance
ADDITIONAL READING
LEGAL EDUCATION
The educational requirements to becoming a lawyer vary greatly from country to
country. In some countries, law is taught by a faculty of law, which is a department
of a university's general undergraduate college. In other countries, particularly the
United States, law is primarily taught at law schools. Most law schools are part of
universities but a few are independent institutions.
Law students in most countries pursue a Bachelor (LLB) or a Master (LLM) of
Law degree. Besides it is often followed by a series of advanced examinations,
apprenticeships and additional coursework at special government institutes.
In common law countries lawyers generally have many options over the course of
their careers. Besides private practice, they can always aspire to becoming a
33
prosecutor, government counsel, corporate in-house counsel, judge, arbitrator, law
professor, or politician.
In most civil law countries, lawyers as a rule structure their legal education around
their chosen specialty; the boundaries between different types of lawyers are
carefully defined and hard to cross. After one earns a law degree, career mobility
may be severely constrained.
Studying law in the UK
In the UK, a legal education usually begins with the completion of a bachelor
degree in law, known as an LLB, which usually takes three years. In the
subsequent vocational stage a person who wishes to become a barrister joins one of
the Inns of Court before beginning the Bar Vocational Course. The completion of
this stage is marked by a ceremony referred to as the call to the Bar. The third
stage, known as pupillage, is a year-long apprenticeship, usually at a set of
barristers' chambers, which customarily consists of groups of 20-60 barristers.
Similarly a person wishing to become a solicitor must also complete three stages:
the first stage involves gaining a law degree: the second stage requires passing a
one-year Legal Practice Course (LPC); and the final stage entails working for two
years as a trainee solicitor with a firm of solicitors or in the legal department of a
local authority or a large company.
The peculiarity of the English system is that one has to decide whether he (she)
wants to be a barrister or a solicitor at the beginning of the education.
Studying law in the USA
In the USA, a legal education comprises four years of undergraduate study
followed by three years of law school. A law-school graduate receives the degree
of juris doctor (J.D.). In order to qualify as a lawyer, a law-school graduate must
pass the bar examination and undergo a background check. Each state has its own
bar examination.
As law students must pass the bar examination in order to become licensed
attorneys and the examination covers a lot of subjects, few students become
specialists in particular areas of law while in law school. Instead, the jobs obtained
by new attorneys largely determine what types of attorneys they will be. For
example, if they are hired by a law firm that specializes in family law, they may
become divorce lawyers.
Studying law in Russia
Law degree - jurist (often compared to an LLM, but in fact equivalent to the degree
of Specialist, specific to the Soviet educational system) is awarded in Russia after
5 years of studies at a university.
Jurist degree may also be awarded in a shorter period of time if a law student has
already completed Bachelor or Specialist degree in another field of studies or has
34
previously earned a basic law degree (comparable to Paralegal, an Associate
degree in the USA) from a specialized law college. Bachelor jurist degree
(equivalent to Bachelor of Laws - LLB) may be earned concurrently with another
Bachelor or Master degree in some universities (comparable to a double-major).
Note that 2 systems fused: one-degree (Specialist) educational scheme has
coexisted with the two-degree (bachelor's - master's) scheme since Russia launched
higher education reforms to bring the domestic educational systems in closer
compliance with the Bologna educational process. The latest educational reforms
created the system where a four-year law program is offered at the universities for
earning Bachelor's degree, and a five-year law program is offered for Master's
degree.
LEGAL ETHICS
Legal ethics can be defined as principles of conduct that members of the profession
are expected to observe in the practice of law. In countries where lawyers are
ordinarily salaried employees of the government, a higher priority is assigned to
the lawyer's duty to the state. However, the majority of lawyers engage in private
practice, therefore they have a duty to the client but also a duty to the court (this is
sometimes called 'divided loyalty'). Their chief interest lies in serving their clients
and in securing justice, not in increasing their own income; the lawyer is engaged,
it is said, in a profession, not in a business.
In England, a barrister is required to accept any case for a proper professional fee
regardless of his personal feelings, except when there are circumstances of
conflicting interests of clients. This rule is known as the cab rank rule. It states that
barristers may not pick and choose their clients but must take the next client
waiting. The solicitor may choose any barrister he likes to represent the client, but
the barrister has no choice: if he practises in the area concerned, he must accept the
brief as long as a proper fee is to be paid. This rule, on the one hand, protects
barristers against being criticised for giving their services to a client with a bad
reputation and, on the other hand, it ensures that everyone has access to a specialist
advocate, enabling even unpopular causes to obtain representation in court.
If a person accused of a crime maintains his innocence, the lawyer cannot advise
him to plead guilty but must use all his knowledge and skills to defend him
because everyone must have a fair trial. Of course, sometimes clients invent a
totally fictional defence for themselves and it is obvious, to the lawyer at least, that
the case is unlikely to succeed in court (for example, a burglar who says that he
thought 'it was his own house'). In this case, the lawyer should outline the options
to the client very clearly and advise him to plead guilty. Sometimes, in serious
cases, defence lawyers negotiate with prosecutors a plea of guilty in return for a
lesser charge and punishment for his client. This procedure, called plea
bargaining, is used when the prosecution is prepared to drop a more serious charge
against the accused or when the judge has informally let it be known that he will
minimize the sentence if the accused pleads guilty. But just because a person
35
confessed to his crime, it does not mean that he is going to get a lighter
punishment. The accused does not take part in these negotiations, but he is free to
make up his own mind about the proposals. If an agreement is reached, there will
be no trial, and the judge will pass the sentence. If not, the case will go to trial, but
the lawyer may still try to convince the court to acquit his client or give him a
lesser punishment.
If a person accused of crime admits it to his lawyer, the lawyer must advise him to
plead guilty. If he refuses to do so, the lawyer must withdraw from the case. What
a lawyer cannot do is to defend someone who tells him he is guilty or to invent a
defence out of his own head. That would be dishonest and would breach the
lawyer's duty to the court.
A lawyer must not reveal what he has been told by the client without the client's
consent.
This is a common law privilege given to clients who are represented by lawyers;
lawyers have no choice in the matter: they cannot go to the police and tell them, for
example, that their client has confessed to murder. Furthermore, if the police
approach them and ask for information, they cannot reveal anything. However, this
obligation does not apply when the client seems about to commit a crime or when
he sues against his lawyer, for example, for malpractice. Confidentiality of a
client's communications with his lawyer is one of the cornerstones of legal ethics.
Lawyers are the only professionals who are in this special position. Doctors,
priests, newspaper journalists may also sometimes receive confidential
information, and normally a judge would not wish them to break their ethical
obligations, but if the interests of justice demand it, he will order them to do so and
they must disclose the information they have received. If they disobey, they will be
fined or sent to prison for contempt of court.
36
UNIT 3
8
NATIONAL JUDICIAL SYSTEMS
LEAD-IN
1. The judiciary8 (also known as the judicial branch of power or the judicial
(court) system) is the system of courts that interprets and applies the law in the
name of the state.
The judiciary also provides a mechanism for the resolution of disputes.
Under the doctrine of the separation of powers, the judiciary generally does not
make law (that is the responsibility of the legislature) or enforce law (which is the
responsibility of the executive), but rather interprets law and applies it to the facts
of each case.
This branch of the state is often tasked with ensuring equal justice under law. It
usually consists of a court of final appeal (called the "Supreme court" or
"Constitutional court"), together with lower courts.
In many jurisdictions the judicial branch has the power to change laws through the
process of judicial review. Courts with the power of judicial review may annul the
laws and rules of the state when it finds them incompatible with a higher norm,
such as primary legislation, the provisions of the constitution or international law.
Judges constitute a critical force for interpretation and implementation of a
constitution, thus de facto in common law countries creating the body of
constitutional law.
Besides the judiciary as an independent branch of the state authority has the power
of supervisory review over the lower courts of the country (or the right to check the
legality of their activity) as well as over the functioning of the other two branches
of state power (legislative and executive ones).
2. The term "judiciary" is also used to refer to the personnel, such as judges,
magistrates and other adjudicators, who form the core of the judiciary (sometimes
referred to as a "bench"), as well as the staffs who keep the system running
smoothly.
www.wikipedia.com
37
JUDICAL SYSTEM OF THE UNITED KINGDOM
ACTIVE VOCABULARY
PART I
1. judicial system – судебная система
the Lord Chief Justice – Лорд главный
судья
the Judiciary – судебная власть (как одна
из ветвей)
2. the Supreme Court – верховный суд
the court of last resort – суд последней
инстанции
3. to hear appeals – рассматривать
(заслушивать) апелляции
arguable points – спорные вопросы
the High Court – Высокий Суд
in exceptional circumstances – в
исключительных случаях (при
исключительных обстоятельствах)
4. the Crown Court – суд Короны
(Королевский суд)
senior courts – вышестоящие суды
intermediate appellate courts –
промежуточные апелляционные суды
Civil and Criminal Divisions – отделы по
уголовным и гражданским делам
5. superior tribunals – суды более
высокой инстанции
a trial on indictment – судебное
разбирательство после предъявления
обвинения (по обвинительному акту)
jury – 1) присяжные, 2) суд присяжных
the defendant – 1) обвиняемый,
подзащитный 2) ответчик
to plead guilty or not guilty – сделать
заявление о виновности или
невиновности
Lord Justices of Appeal – судьи
апелляционного суда
to reach a decision – вынести решение
(прийти к…)
binding – обязательный, имеющий
обязательную силу
6. the Master of the Rolls –
1) председатель отдела по гражданским
делам апелляционного суда,
2) «хранитель» государственного архива
to constitute the court – образовывать,
входить в состав суда
an appointment – назначение на
должность
mandatory retirement – обязательный
уход в отставку
to sit as a bench – заседать коллегиально
controversial cases – спорные дела
to convene a bench of judges – созвать
судейскую коллегию
7. witnesses – свидетели
to produce evidence – предоставить
доказательства
to argue the case – обосновывать свою
позицию по делу
to clarify – вносить ясность
8. The High Court of Justice or the High
Court – Высокий суд правосудия в
Англии
Divisional Courts – апелляционное
присутствие отделений Высокого суда
9. Queen’s Bench Division – отделение
Королевской Скамьи
Chancery Division – канцлерское
отделение
Family Division – отделение по семейным
вопросам
the law of torts – деликтное право
matters covering mortgages – вопросы,
охватывающие ипотечные кредиты и
иные залоги
trusts – доверительные имущественные
отношения
deeds – сделки в особой письменной
форме
minors – несовершеннолетние
the partition of land – раздел земли
(недвижимого имущества)
matrimonial matters – семейные вопросы
adoption of children – усыновление,
удочерение детей
10. puisne judges – члены Высокого суда
(рядовые судьи)
Privy Counselors – тайные советники
(члены Тайного Совета в Англии)
to tour on circuit – совершать выездные
сессии (о суде и судьях)
to reach trial stage – дойти до стадии
судебного разбирательства
to settle disputes out of court –
урегулировать споры вне суда
38
the Crown Court – суд Короны
11. to carry out some types of activity –
выполнять некоторые виды деятельности
sentencing of defendants – вынесение
приговора в отношении подзащитных
to commit cases for sentencing –
передавать дела в целях вынесения
приговора
to convict – вынести обвинительный
приговор, осудить
12. the decision on guilt or innocence –
решение в отношении виновности или
невиновности
13. circuit judges – судьи, закрепленные
за определенными округами (окружные)
of … years’ standing – с…-летним
стажем
part-time judges – судьи с частичной
занятостью
Recorders – городские мировые судьи
14. criminal offences – уголовные
правонарушения
to try cases – рассматривать дела
murder – умышленное убийство
spying – шпионаж
to assign the case – перепоручить дело
manslaughter – неумышленное убийство
(по неосторожности)
rape – изнасилование
incestuous acts – инцест (преступление
кровосмешения)
infanticide – детоубийство
to cause very serious bodily harm –
причинить тяжкий телесный вред
robbery – ограбление, грабеж
burglary – кража со взломом,
проникновение
theft – кража, воровство
assault causing bodily harm – нападение
с причинением телесных повреждений
15. proceedings – судебное
разбирательство
the accused – обвиняемый
to pass the sentence – вынести приговор
sexual abuse – сексуальное
надругательство
16. lower courts – нижестоящие суды
County Courts – суды графств
Magistrates’ Courts – мировые суды
(магистратские)
to administer justice – отправлять
правосудие
minor civil cases – малозначительные
гражданские дела
to approve – одобрять
a district judge – районный судья
with some exceptions – за рядом
исключений
17. to remove a Judge for cause –
отстранить судью по причине
(мотивированное отстранение)
18. financial claims – финансовые
претензии, требования
to arbitrate the matter – вынести
арбитражное (третейское) решение по
вопросу
the small claims procedure – процедура
рассмотрения мелких (малых) исков
to award costs – присуждать судебные
издержки
19. criminal prosecution – уголовное
преследование (в судебном порядке)
motoring offences – нарушения правил
дорожного движения
maintenance order – судебное решение о
присуждении алиментов
licensing application – использование
лицензий
20. lay magistrates (Justices of the
Peace) – магистраты –
непрофессиональные (мировые) судьи
subsistence – компенсация расходов (на
питание)
traveling allowance – дотации на поездки
Deputy District Judges – помощники
районного судьи
21. stipendiary justices – судьи,
получающие гос. зарплату
full-time justices – судьи на условиях
полной занятости
22. Youth Courts – суд по делам о
несовершеннолетних
to commit crimes – совершать
преступления
juvenile offenders – малолетние
(несовершеннолетние) правонарушители
39
READING
9
Прочитайте текст, опираясь на активную лексику темы.
1. The work of the British judicial system is governed by the Ministry of
Justice, which is a department of government, created under the Constitutional
Reform Act, 2005. The Lord Chief Justice is the head of the Judiciary. The
English judicial system is, basically, pyramidal in its organization (structure).
2. At the top of the pyramid, there is the Supreme Court of the United
Kingdom. It is the court of last resort, highest appellate court in all matters under
English law, Welsh law, Northern Irish law and Scottish civil law (the supreme
criminal court in Scotland is the High Court of Justice). The Supreme Court started
its work on 1 October 2009. It replaced the Appellate Committee of the House of
Lords (called also the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council) as the highest court
in the UK9.
3. The court hears appeals on arguable points of law of the greatest public
importance from the Court of Appeal and the High Court (only in exceptional
circumstances). Appeals are normally heard by 5 Justices, but there can be as
many as 9 (in exceptional cases – up to12) Justices of the Supreme Court; one of
them is the President.
4. At the next level there is the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice
and Crown Court which are senior courts in the English legal system.
Just beneath the Supreme Court, there is the Court of Appeal, the intermediate
appellate court, which hears both criminal and civil appeals. Under the Supreme
Court Act, 1981, there exists a single Court of Appeal with Civil and Criminal
Divisions.
5. The Civil Division hears appeals from the High Court and County Courts,
and some superior tribunals, while the Criminal Division may hear appeals from
the Crown Court connected with a trial on indictment (i.e. trial by judge and jury,
where the jury is present if the defendant pleads «not guilty»). Three Lord
Justices of Appeal hear an appeal, reaching a decision of majority. The decisions
are binding on all courts apart from the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom.
Lords Justices are selected from the ranks of senior judges.
6. The Civil Division is presided over by the Master of the Rolls and the
Criminal Division by the Lord Chief Justice. About sixteen Lord Justices of
Appeal promoted from the judicial ranks constitute the Court. The appointments
are for life, subject to the mandatory retirement at the age of 75. The Court of
Appeal normally sits as a bench of three justices although in controversial cases a
bench of five may be convened.
The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council is still the court of final appeal for Commonwealth
countries that have retained appeals to either Her Majesty in Council or to the Judicial Committee.
Some functions of the Judicial Committee were taken over by the new Supreme Court in 2009.
40
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