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undertakes work through a solicitor, moreover as a general rule, clients do not
have direct access to barristers, they must see a solicitor first, and they do not pay
the barrister directly but through a solicitor. A document of instructions prepared
by a solicitor for a barrister to follow in court is known as a brief. It usually
contains an outline of the case, the evidence and proof available, and
statements or interviews of witnesses.
4) A small number of specialist barristers do not go into court at all, advising
professional people, such as accountants, on legal matters and writing opinions at
the request of solicitors on difficult and complicated areas of the law.
5) In their turn solicitors deal with a much wider range of legal work: they advise
commercial and private clients on business and property matters, they make all
the legal arrangements; they investigate and prepare cases to be tried in civil
and criminal courts which they then hand to barristers; they also deal with
litigation which is settled out of court; they assist employees and employers;
make wills and so on. Being a solicitor does not simply involve acquiring
knowledge of the theory and practice of the law. It also requires high standards of
conduct and an onerous obligation to the court. The full title of a solicitor is
“Solicitor of the Supreme Court” as all solicitors are automatically officers of the
court. They have duties to the court which sometimes override the duties to their
clients. For instance, solicitors must not knowingly allow their client to tell lies in
the witness box. If clients confess their guilt to a solicitor, the solicitor would be
committing an offence if he or she then called the clients to give evidence that
they were innocent.
6) Until quite recently, solicitors had the right of audience only in lower courts,
where they could represent clients themselves, without the help of a barrister.
Now solicitors can qualify for rights of audience in the higher courts; they are
then called solicitor-advocates.
7) Solicitors are employed often by industry or local authorities but usually they
work in partnerships with other solicitors. A firm of solicitors would normally
consist of partners, those who take part in management and have a share in
profits, and associates, who are salaried employees without these rights. There
are many firms, ranging from small one-man practices to large city practices
employing hundreds of partners and associates. Solicitors by far outnumber
practising barristers: at present there are over 100,000 solicitors as against some
11,000 barristers. The reason for this is obvious: only rarely will a citizen be faced
with civil or criminal proceedings and require the services of the barrister, but
many often have to consult a lawyer to prevent matters going wrong, for
example, when setting up a business or making a will, or buying or selling
property. When a client goes to see a solicitor and tells him what he requires this
is called giving a solicitor instructions.
8) A solicitor appearing in court must wear a gown, and so must a barrister
appearing in a civil case; in a criminal case a barrister wears a gown and a wig.
21
Some barristers carry the letters 'QC' ('Queen's Counsel') after their name. They
1. counselor
а) специалисты юр. отдела, судебные исполнители
2. legal advisor
б) нотариус
3. solicitor-advocate
в) королевский адвокат (советник)
4. the Bar Council
г) младший сотрудник (юрист), помощник…
5. a clerk
д) советник, юр. консультант
6. associates
е) судья
7. Queen’s Counsel
ж) ассоциация юристов, товарищество
8. a junior counsel
з) солиситор, имеющий право представлять клиентов в
вышестоящем суде
wear a silk gown instead of a stuff gown; hence, the phrase 'taking the silk'. In
court, they appear as 'leading counsels' and are usually assisted by a junior
(ordinary) counsel. QCs are expected to handle the most serious and difficult
cases, and their fees are generally higher. The rank of QC dates back to the
sixteenth century and originally they were barristers selected to serve as counsels
to the Crown. Nowadays, despite their title, they may appear on behalf of any
person and conduct cases for or against the Crown. Solicitors with full rights of
audience can also apply to become Queen's Counsels. After 10 or 15 years of
practice barristers may become judges; solicitors of 10 years in practice may also
become judges but in lower courts. There have been discussions from time to time
concerning merging the two professions but it does not seem likely that there will
be a fusion.
9) There is, however, a certain breed of lawyers who regard themselves as the
third branch of the legal profession: these are legal executives, who work in
exactly the same way as many solicitors but who are not qualified solicitors, and
subsequently cannot become partners in a legal practice. This route into the legal
profession is taken by clerks working in firms of solicitors, who study while they
are working. They take their qualifications at the Institute of Legal Executives
(ILEX), and only Fellows of ILEX may describe themselves as 'legal executives'.
VOCABULARY FOCUS
1. Прочитайте текст и выпишите термины или терминологические
выражения по следующим «темам»:
1) Names of the legal profession in different countries;
2) Roles (specializations) of lawyers;
3) Possible titles of lawyers in some countries;
4) Terms to name the educational process in the law sphere;
5) Ways to enter the profession of a lawyer;
6) Functions of lawyers;
7) Places where lawyers deal with different types of legal work.
2. Соотнесите английские термины с их русскими эквивалентами:
22
9. partnerships
и) коллегия барристеров
10. notary
к) секретарь суда
11. legal executives
л) юр. консультант
12. judge
м) рядовые сотрудники (юристы)
3. Дополните следующие предложения терминами или
терминологическими сочетаниями из активной лексики темы,
переведите данные предложения на русский язык:
1) A lawyer is an individual licensed by the state to__________.
2) Roles of lawyers vary greatly across legal jurisdiction depending upon
__________.
3) In most countries lawyers have roughly the same _______ and they are
permitted to______.
4) In England the legal profession is divided into 2 types of lawyers called
_____ and _____ who have_________.
5) There are other legal professionals with important __________.
6) Barristers are mainly _________ lawyers.
7) Barristers who are known collectively as __________ have rights
__________ so they actually_______.
8) Many barristers spend much of their time on paperwork, giving opinions,
_______ and other documents __________.
9) A small number of specialist barristers do not go into court at all, advising
professional people on ________ and writing opinions at ______ solicitors on
difficult areas of the law.
10) Solicitors deal with a range of legal work: advise _______ on business
and________, make all _________.
11) Solicitors investigate and prepare cases to __________ in _________courts
which they then hand to barristers.
12) Solicitors can qualify for _________ in _______; they are then called
_________.
13) A firm of solicitors would normally consist of __________, those who take
part in ________ and have a _______; and associates, who are _________
without these rights.
14) Queen’s Counsels are expected to _________ and their ______are generally
higher.
15) Solicitors with full rights of audience can also _________ to become ____.
16) The third branch of legal profession includes __________ who work as
many solicitors but are not _________ and cannot become _________.
23
READING AND SPEAKING
1. Ответьте на следующие вопросы, постарайтесь отвечать в опоре
на активную лексику темы, не глядя в текст:
1) What is a lawyer? Give several variants of the definition of this term.
2) What does a role of a lawyer depend on? Enumerate different roles
(specializations) performed by lawyers in most legal systems.
3) Find main differences between legal education in England and legal training
in the majority of other countries.
4) What is the distinctive feature of the legal profession in England?
5) According to the text, what are barristers and solicitors mainly concerned
with (specialized in)?
6) Find distinctive features typical of each type of lawyers in England.
Firstly analyze the profession of a barrister:
a) What are offices where they work called?
b) What kinds of rights do barristers have in courts?
c) What party (side) at the trial do barristers usually represent?
d) What forms of paperwork do barristers perform as a rule?
e) Who arranges all the work for barristers?
f) In what way do barristers get their work (tasks from clients)?
Secondly speak about solicitors:
a) What are main types of legal work that solicitors perform?
b) Do solicitors have duties to the court? If there are any, give examples.
c) What is peculiar to the solicitors’ rights of audience in court if we
compare with barristers?
d) In what kind of offices (firms) do solicitors usually work?
e) Name 2 main categories of solicitors that work in legal firms.
7) Why do solicitors by far outnumber practicing barristers?
8) What is a Queen’s Counsel? What kinds of cases do they mostly deal with?
9) When can solicitors apply to become Queen’s Counsels?
10) What is the “third branch” in the legal profession? What can you say about
this category of legal professionals?
2. Подготовьте аргументы, опираясь на содержание текста, для
участия в обсуждении на тему «Основные различия и сходства между
двумя юридическими профессиями Великобритании (между
солиситорами и барристерами)». Начинайте свои высказывания
речевыми оборотами: I think…; To my mind…; In my opinion…; As a matter
of fact…; As far as I know… Основные пункты обсуждения:
1) Education
2) Types of work done by lawyers, ways how they organize their work
3) Duties in court
4) Their titles
5) Offices (agencies or firms) where lawyers work
24
6) Relations with clients
7) Career mobility (options over the course of their career)
TEST YOURSELF
Прежде чем перейти к изучению следующей темы, проверьте, запомнили
ли вы значения и смысл следующих ключевых терминов и
терминологических сочетаний по данной теме:
a lawyer
an attorney
a counsel(-lor)
a solicitor
a barrister
a legal advisor
a prosecutor
a judge
an arbitrator
in-house counsels
notaries
legal executives
Queen’s Counsels
partners
associates
the Bar (the Bar Council)
partnerships
legal education (training)
legal qualification
to do legal work
to deal with legal work
to engage in the practice of law
to advise on legal matters
to make legal engagements
to make wills
to draw up contracts
to represent clients in court
to conduct cases
to have rights of audience (= rights to appear) in courts
25
PART II
LEGAL PROFESSION IN THE USA. TYPES OF LEGAL PROFESSION IN
RUSSIA.
ACTIVE VOCABULARY
LEGAL PROFESSION IN THE USA
1. an attorney (or attorney-at-law) –
юрист, прокурор
2. to hire the legal adviser – нанимать
юрисконсульта
the respective state – соответствующий
штат
to be authorized to perform functions –
быть уполномоченным выполнять
функции
to offer advice concerning the law –
предоставлять консультации
относительно правовых вопросов
to draft legal documents – составлять
юридические документы
to represent the client in court –
представлять клиента в суде
3. the breadth of attorneys’ authorities –
широта полномочий юристов
to handle any area of law – заниматься
любой сферой (областью) права
the needs of the employers – потребности
работодателей
the demands of the clients – требования
клиентов
4. different approaches – различные
подходы
to take into account – учитывать
in-house counsels – штатные
юрисконсульты
sole practitioners – отдельно
практикующие юристы
5. to enforce governmental laws and
regulations – обеспечить исполнение
правительственных законов и
постановлений (часто принудительно)
6. negotiations – переговоры
routine litigation – текущие судебные
дела (тяжбы)
to provide low-cost or no-cost legal
advice – предоставить недорогую или
бесплатную юр. консультацию
7. to be in private practice = to be
engaged in private practice – заниматься
частной юридической (адвокатской)
практикой
estate planning – использование
недвижимого имущества
8. inheritance – 1) наследуемая
недвижимость, 2) наследство
to draft wills, trusts – составлять
завещания, доверенности
divorce – развод
adoption – усыновление (удочерение)
child custody – забота о ребенке, опека,
попечительство
to arrange business deals – улаживать
коммерческие сделки, приводить к
соответствию финансово-хозяйственные
операции
the imposition of taxes – взимание
налогов, налогообложение
debts – долги
to discharge – освобождать от
обязанностей, восстанавливать в правах
(несостоятельного должника)
9. participation in judicial proceedings –
участие в судебных разбирательствах
litigators – юристы, представляющие
тяжущиеся стороны процесса
lawsuits – 1) иски, 2) тяжбы
arbitrations – решения арбитражного или
третейского суда
negotiated settlements – соглашения,
урегулированные путем переговоров
transactional attorneys – юристы по
сопровождению сделок
to negotiate – вести переговоры
10. plaintiff attorneys – адвокаты истца
defense attorneys – адвокаты ответчика
(подзащитного)
personal injury – личный вред (обычно
телесный)
prosecutors – прокуроры
to pursue charges – осуществлять
уголовное преследование
people suspected of committing crimes –
лица, подозреваемые в совершении
преступлений
people accused of crimes – лица,
обвиняемые в совершении преступлений
26
11. enforcement of criminal laws –
обеспечение исполнения правовых норм
уголовного права
state attorneys general – главный,
генеральный прокурор штата
the chief legal official of the state –
высший чиновник органов юстиции
штата
to prosecute violations – преследовать
нарушения в уголовном порядке
to file civil lawsuits – подавать иски
individuals involved in illegal practices –
лица причастные к противозаконной
деятельности
12.the judicial branch of government –
судебная ветвь власти
to serve as a judge – работать судьей
TYPES OF LEGAL PROFESSIONS IN
RUSSIA
1. secondary or higher professional legal
education – среднее или высшее
профессиональное юридическое
образование
persons brought to trial – лица
представшие пред судом
in exceptional cases – в исключительных
случаях
according to the petition of the accused –
в соответствии с ходатайством
обвиняемого
private charges – обвинения частных лиц
2. college of advocates – коллегия
адвокатов
to preside over the courtroom –
председательствовать в зале суда
to decide issues – решать спорные
вопросы
voters - избиратели
to continue in office – оставаться в
должности
inexperienced attorneys – юристы, не
имеющие опыта
law clerks – судебный
делопроизводитель, сотрудник
канцелярии суда, секретарь
state appeals court judges – судьи
апелляционных судов штата
state trial judges – судьи судов первой
инстанции штата
self-managed cooperative-type
organization – независимая общественная
организация
a chairperson – председатель
the executive board – исполнительный
комитет
a term of three years – срок в три года
territorial subdivisions –
территориальные подразделения,
образования
legal aid office – юридическая
консультация
to render all regular legal assistance –
оказывать любую правовую помощь
3. in-house counsels (jurisconsults) –
штатные консультанты
a permanent client – постоянный клиент
LEGAL PROFESSION IN THE USA
1). The American legal profession, like American law, has its roots in England,
but with significant differences. In the United States, there is no division of the
profession, and a lawyer frequently does both office work and courtroom work. An
attorney at law (or attorney-at-law) is the usual term used in the United States.
Alternative terms include counsel (-lor) (or counsellor-at-law).
2). An attorney is a qualified professional who gives legal advice and is licensed
to represent a person, or a client, who, in his turn, hires the legal adviser. The
attorney at law is a person admitted to practice law in his respective state and
authorized to perform both civil and criminal legal functions for clients and
there is a great deal of variety in the types of work done by lawyers. Any of them
27
may offer advice concerning the law, draft legal documents and represent the
client in court.
3). The breadth of attorneys’ authorities in the United States contrasts with the
organization of legal professions in some other countries. Despite their authority to
handle any area of law, U.S. lawyers usually specialize in specific tasks or legal
subjects depending on the needs of their employers or from the demands of their
clients.
4). There are different approaches to classification of attorneys into certain
types:
If we take into account their employers attorneys may be divided into:
- government attorneys,
- corporate attorneys or in-house counsels,
- self-employed attorneys or sole practitioners called also outside counsels.
5). Attorneys employed by government agencies become specialists in the areas
of law handled by their agencies and enforce governmental laws and
regulations. For example, attorneys may specialize in matters affecting health
care, education, transportation, housing, agriculture and other areas overseen by
government agencies.
6). Attorneys working for private corporations or law firms may represent the
corporation in labour or contract negotiations and may handle routine litigation
filed against the corporation. Corporate attorneys may also provide low-cost or
no-cost legal advice to employees of the corporation.
7). An attorney may be as well in private practice. An attorney engaged in
private practice, whether a sole practitioner, a member of a partnership, or a
member of a large law firm, may handle diverse duties such as estate planning,
business law, and civil or criminal litigation.
8). According to the certain field of specialization there can be plenty of types of
attorneys named, for instance:
- estate planning attorneys who assist clients to address laws affecting inheritance
and may draft wills, trusts and other legal instruments;
- family law attorneys who specialize in divorce, adoption, child custody cases,
etc;
- labour attorneys who deal with employment issues, including contract
negotiations between labor unions and employers;
- tax attorneys often advise clients on arranging business deals and personal
affairs to minimize the imposition of taxes;
- bankruptcy attorneys represent people seeking to have their debts discharged by
the court, etc.
28
9). Depending on their participation in judicial proceedings there can be:
- litigators - attorneys who advise clients in the context of legal disputes both in
and out of court, including lawsuits, arbitrations and negotiated settlements;
- transactional (or "office practice") attorneys who negotiate and draft
documents and advise clients, rarely going to court.
10). In courts attorneys limit their activities to specialized roles as well and there
are:
- trial attorneys who argue the facts in trial courts,
- appellate attorneys who argue decisions of lower courts,
- plaintiff attorneys,
- defence attorneys (some attorneys do both plaintiff and defence work, others
handle only certain types of cases like personal injury, business etc.),
- prosecutors who investigate and pursue charges against people suspected of
committing crimes,
- criminal defence attorney in their turn represent people accused of crimes.
11). The enforcement of criminal laws is primarily handled by local prosecutors
who typically work for the county or city government. However, attorneys who
work for state attorneys general, the chief legal officials in each state, may have
the authority to prosecute violations of certain state laws or to file civil lawsuits
against corporations and individuals involved in illegal business practices.
12). In the judicial branch of government attorneys may serve as judges who
preside over courtrooms and decide issues during trials. The President of the
United States chooses attorneys for federal courts to serve as judges. In most states,
voters play a role in either electing attorneys to become judges or in deciding
whether judges have performed well enough to continue in office. Inexperienced
attorneys called “law clerks” work for a year or two as assistants to federal
judges, state appeals court judges, and some state trial judges.
TYPES OF LEGAL PROFESSION IN RUSSIA
1). In the Russian Federation a lawyer is a person who has got secondary or
higher professional legal education. However, as a general rule in order to
protect persons brought to trial lawyers have to pass a special qualification
examination and get the status of the advocate. In some exceptional cases
(according to the petition of the accused and in cases of private charges) the
protection in court is possible by some other persons. Giving legal advice on civil,
administrative and some other cases a lawyer doesn’t have to get the status of the
advocate as well.
2). Lawyers in private practice in Russia work mostly within colleges of
advocates that are self-managed cooperative-type organizations. The highest
body of advocates’ self-management is the general meeting of a college. The
29
presidium headed by the chairperson is the executive board of each college. The
a)
attorney(s)
1)…employed by
government
а) юристы без опыта работы
2)…working for private
corporations
б) юристы, ведущие частную практику
3) licensed…
в) корпоративные штатные юристы
4) … -at-law
г) юристы на государственной службе
5) authorities (powers)
of…
д) юристы, имеющие собственную фирму
(консультацию)
6) inexperienced…
е) лицензированные (дипломированные)
юристы
7) corporate in-house…
ж) юристы, работающие на частные
предприятия
8) self-employed…
з) полномочия юристов
9) …in private practice
и) юристы
b)
attorney(s)
1) estate planning…
а) юристы по сопровождению сделок
2) labour law…
б) юрист, занимающийся апелляциями
3) tax…
в) генеральный прокурор штата
4) bankruptcy…
г) адвокат стороны обвинения (защиты)
5) transactional…
д) юрист, специализирующийся в сфере
трудового права
6) trial…
е) юрист, специализирующийся по вопросам
налогообложения
7) appellate…
ж) юрист, специализирующийся в сфере
использования недвижимого имущества
presidium is elected by the general meeting for a term of three years.
3). Colleges of advocates are formed in accordance with territorial
subdivisions — in the cities, regions, republics or autonomous entities. In its
territory any college is represented by law firms or legal aid offices, which render
all regular legal assistance to citizens. Advocates counsel people, draft legal
documents, represent plaintiffs or defendants in civil litigation, and provide
defense in criminal proceedings.
4). There are now more and more American-type law firms in Russia functioning
separately from colleges of advocates and especially involved in representing
private businesses.
5). Many lawyers are employed by law offices of enterprises, ministries and
agencies as in-house counsels (jurisconsults). These lawyers have all powers of
an attorney, but they represent their single and permanent “client” - their
respective organization.
ACTIVE VOCABULARY
1. Изучите следующие схемы и соотнесите получившиеся
терминологические выражения с их русскими эквивалентами:
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